Barriers and misconceptions hindering reduction of intestinal schistosomiasis in Mbita Sub-County, Western Kenya.

BACKGROUND: Community and individual participation are crucial for the success of schistosomiasis control. The World Health Organization (WHO) has highlighted the importance of enhanced sanitation, health education, and Mass Drug Administration (MDA) in the fight against schistosomiasis. These approaches rely on the knowledge and practices of the community to be successful; however, where the community knowledge is low and inappropriate, it hinders intervention efforts. Hence, it is essential to identify barriers and misconceptions related to awareness of schistosomiasis, sources of infection, mode of transmission, symptoms, and control measures. METHODS: This was a mixed-method cross-sectional study involving 1200 pre-school children randomly selected and examined for Schistosoma mansoni infection using the Kato-Katz technique. All parents/guardians of selected children were enrolled for a pre-tested questionnaire survey, while 42 were engaged in focus group discussions (FGDs). The level of knowledge and awareness among parents/guardians about schistosomiasis was evaluated in relation to the infection status of their pre-school children. RESULTS: Among pre-school children, the prevalence of intestinal schistosomiasis was 45.1% (95% CI 41.7-48.5). A majority of parents/guardians (85.5%) had heard about schistosomiasis, and this awareness was associated with the participant's level of education (OR = 0.16, 95% CI 0.08, 0.34). In addition, a positive association was observed between higher educational attainment and knowledge of the causative agent (OR = 0.69, 95% CI 0.49, 0.96). Low education level was significantly associated with limited knowledge of transmission through lake water contact (OR = 0.71, 95% CI 0.52, 0.97) and infection from the lake (OR = 0.33, 95% CI 0.19, 0.57). Notably, parents/guardians who have heard of schistosomiasis could not recognize symptoms of S. mansoni infection, such as abdominal pain (91.8%, 815/888) and blood in the stool (85.1%, 756/888). Surprisingly, 49.8% (442/888) incorrectly identified hematuria (blood in urine), a key sign of S. haematobium, but not S. mansoni, in an endemic area for S. mansoni infection. The majority (82.6%, 734/888) of parents/guardians were unaware that dams are potential infection sites, despite 53.9% (479/888) of their pre-school-aged children testing positive for schistosome infection. CONCLUSIONS: Despite the high level of awareness of intestinal schistosomiasis in the study area, we identified a low level of knowledge regarding its causes, modes of transmission, signs and symptoms and potential sites of transmission within the community. This study emphasizes the need for targeted educational interventions to address the misconceptions and knowledge gaps surrounding intestinal schistosomiasis through tailored community-based programs.

Community preferred drug delivery approaches for pilot roll-out of a potential novel paediatric schistosomiasis treatment option in two endemic counties of Kenya: A mixed methods study.

Treating preschool age children (PSAC) for schistosomiasis has remained a challenge due to lack of a pediatric formulation. In response to this unmet need, the Paediatric Praziquantel Consortium has developed a potential novel paediatric treatment option. In advance to its roll-out to follow regulatory response, we conducted a social science study to gather information on preferred drug delivery approaches to inform implementation. A cross-sectional study was conducted in eight villages in two purposively selected Kenyan counties. A questionnaire was administered on 690 parents/guardians of PSAC at household level. Preferred drug delivery approaches were analyzed using frequencies and proportions. We conducted key informant interviews with 17 opinion leaders and 28 healthcare workers, and 12 focus group discussions with parents/guardians of PSAC and 7 with community health volunteers (CHVs). Thematic analysis was performed on the qualitative data. Majority of the 690 respondents were women 594 (86.1%) with a mean age of 34.1 (SD = 11.3, min-max = 18-86). Community-based mass drug administration (cMDA) was the most preferred drug delivery method by 598 participants (86.7%), followed by health facility/fixed points by 398 participants (57.7%). Similarly, in the qualitative data participants indicated they prefer cMDA since the CHVs who would distribute the medication are familiar with households with PSAC and are trusted to explain the drug effects. Health facilities/fixed points were the second most preferred drug delivery approach, but some health workers we interviewed expressed concern about potential understaffing and overcrowding of facilities. Appropriate timing of the drug distribution, not to interfere with farming activities, was considered critical, irrespective of the approach used. All profiles of study participants preferred cMDA over the other delivery approaches due to the convenience of receiving drugs at home and providing explanations about the new drug. For positive outcomes, adequate planning, proper timings and community involvement are highly recommended.

An Ensemble Framework for Projecting the Impact of Lymphatic Filariasis Interventions Across Sub-Saharan Africa at a Fine Spatial Scale.

BACKGROUND: Lymphatic filariasis (LF) is a neglected tropical disease targeted for elimination as a public health problem by 2030. Although mass treatments have led to huge reductions in LF prevalence, some countries or regions may find it difficult to achieve elimination by 2030 owing to various factors, including local differences in transmission. Subnational projections of intervention impact are a useful tool in understanding these dynamics, but correctly characterizing their uncertainty is challenging. METHODS: We developed a computationally feasible framework for providing subnational projections for LF across 44 sub-Saharan African countries using ensemble models, guided by historical control data, to allow assessment of the role of subnational heterogeneities in global goal achievement. Projected scenarios include ongoing annual treatment from 2018 to 2030, enhanced coverage, and biannual treatment. RESULTS: Our projections suggest that progress is likely to continue well. However, highly endemic locations currently deploying strategies with the lower World Health Organization recommended coverage (65%) and frequency (annual) are expected to have slow decreases in prevalence. Increasing intervention frequency or coverage can accelerate progress by up to 5 or 6 years, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: While projections based on baseline data have limitations, our methodological advancements provide assessments of potential bottlenecks for the global goals for LF arising from subnational heterogeneities. In particular, areas with high baseline prevalence may face challenges in achieving the 2030 goals, extending the "tail" of interventions. Enhancing intervention frequency and/or coverage will accelerate progress. Our approach facilitates preimplementation assessments of the impact of local interventions and is applicable to other regions and neglected tropical diseases.

Geographic pair matching in large-scale cluster randomized trials.

Cluster randomized trials are often used to study large-scale public health interventions. In large trials, even small improvements in statistical efficiency can have profound impacts on the required sample size and cost. Location integrates many socio-demographic and environmental characteristics into a single, readily available feature. Here we show that pair matching by geographic location leads to substantial gains in statistical efficiency for 14 child health outcomes that span growth, development, and infectious disease through a re-analysis of two large-scale trials of nutritional and environmental interventions in Bangladesh and Kenya. Relative efficiencies from pair matching are ≥1.1 for all outcomes and regularly exceed 2.0, meaning an unmatched trial would need to enroll at least twice as many clusters to achieve the same level of precision as the geographically pair matched design. We also show that geographically pair matched designs enable estimation of fine-scale, spatially varying effect heterogeneity under minimal assumptions. Our results demonstrate broad, substantial benefits of geographic pair matching in large-scale, cluster randomized trials.

Is detection of enteropathogens and human or animal faecal markers in the environment associated with subsequent child enteric infections and growth: an individual participant data meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Quantifying contributions of environmental faecal contamination to child diarrhoea and growth faltering can illuminate causal mechanisms behind modest health benefits in recent water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) trials. We aimed to assess associations between environmental detection of enteropathogens and human or animal microbial source tracking markers (MSTM) and subsequent child health outcomes. METHODS: In this individual participant data meta-analysis we searched we searched PubMed, Embase, CAB Direct Global Health, Agricultural and Environmental Science Database, Web of Science, and Scopus for WASH intervention studies with a prospective design and concurrent control that measured enteropathogens or MSTM in environmental samples, or both, and subsequently measured enteric infections, diarrhoea, or height-for-age Z-scores (HAZ) in children younger than 5 years. We excluded studies that only measured faecal indicator bacteria. The initial search was done on Jan 19, 2021, and updated on March 22, 2023. One reviewer (AM) screened abstracts, and two independent reviewers (AM and RT) examined the full texts of short-listed articles. All included studies include at least one author that also contributed as an author to the present Article. Our primary outcomes were the 7-day prevalence of caregiver-reported diarrhoea and HAZ in children. For specific enteropathogens in the environment, primary outcomes also included subsequent child infection with the same pathogen ascertained by stool testing. We estimated associations using covariate-adjusted regressions and pooled estimates across studies. FINDINGS: Data from nine published reports from five interventions studies, which included 8603 children (4302 girls and 4301 boys), were included in the meta-analysis. Environmental pathogen detection was associated with increased infection prevalence with the same pathogen and lower HAZ (ΔHAZ -0·09 [95% CI -0·17 to -0·01]) but not diarrhoea (prevalence ratio 1·22 [95% CI 0·95 to 1·58]), except during wet seasons. Detection of MSTM was not associated with diarrhoea (no pooled estimate) or HAZ (ΔHAZ -0·01 [-0·13 to 0·11] for human markers and ΔHAZ -0·02 [-0·24 to 0·21] for animal markers). Soil, children's hands, and stored drinking water were major transmission pathways. INTERPRETATION: Our findings support a causal chain from pathogens in the environment to infection to growth faltering, indicating that the lack of WASH intervention effects on child growth might stem from insufficient reductions in environmental pathogen prevalence. Studies measuring enteropathogens in the environment should subsequently measure the same pathogens in stool to further examine theories of change between WASH, faecal contamination, and health. Given that environmental pathogen detection was predictive of infection, programmes targeting specific pathogens (eg, vaccinations and elimination efforts) can environmentally monitor the pathogens of interest for population-level surveillance instead of collecting individual biospecimens. FUNDING: The Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation and the UK Foreign and Commonwealth Development Office.

Association between diet quality and risk of stunting among school-aged children in Schistosoma mansoni endemic area of western Kenya: a cross-sectional study.

BACKGROUND: Healthy eating habits are essential for improving nutritional status and strengthening immunity against infectious diseases. This study examined the relationship between diet quality and stunting in school-aged children in an infectious disease-endemic area of western Kenya. METHODS: This cross-sectional study included 260 school-aged children (age 9-17 years) enrolled in primary schools in Mbita Sub-county, western Kenya. The nutritional status was assessed using anthropometric measurements. Dietary intake was measured using food frequency questionnaires and evaluated using the Food Pyramid (FP) score, which indicates adherence to the Kenyan food-based dietary guideline. Information on the children's age, sex, maternal education, and household wealth index was collected using a household-based questionnaire. Infections with the predominant parasites, such as Schistosoma (S.) mansoni, were detected via microscopy. The trend associations of the FP score with food group intake were examined to characterize the dietary intake of this population. Logistic regression analysis was performed to investigate the relationship between stunting and FP score tertiles, adjusted for sociodemographic and economic indicators and parasitic infection status. RESULTS: Among the studied schoolchildren, 15.0% exhibited stunting, while 76.2% were infected with S. mansoni. The mean FP score was 25.6 out of 50 points. A higher FP score was characterized by a high intake of roots and tubers, dairy products, pulses, and fruits and a low intake of cereals and animal-source foods. The analysis revealed a trend: a lower risk of stunting was evident in groups with elevated FP scores (p for trend = 0.065). However, these trend associations were observable among subjects with either negative or light S. mansoni infection (p for trend = 0.016). CONCLUSIONS: A higher quality diet, as evaluated by FP scores, was associated with a low risk of stunting among school-aged children. Notably, this association seemed to weaken in the presence of a high burden of S. mansoni infection. It highlights the importance of enhancing dietary quality through the promotion of diverse nutrient-dense foods alongside effective S. mansoni infection control for improved growth. This study contributes fundamental knowledge for understanding the diet-malnutrition relationship in areas endemic for S. mansoni infection.

How important is the spatial movement of people in attempts to eliminate the transmission of human helminth infections by mass drug administration?

Human mobility contributes to the spatial dynamics of many infectious diseases, and understanding these dynamics helps us to determine the most effective ways to intervene and plan surveillance. In this paper, we describe a novel transmission model for the spatial dynamics of hookworm, a parasitic worm which is a common infection across sub-Saharan Africa, East Asia and the Pacific islands. We fit our model, with and without mobility, to data obtained from a sub-county in Kenya, and validate the model's predictions against the decline in prevalence observed over the course of a clustered randomized control trial evaluating methods of administering mass chemotherapy. We find that our model which incorporates human mobility is able to reproduce the observed patterns in decline of prevalence during the TUMIKIA trial, and additionally, that the widespread bounce-back of infection may be possible over many years, depending on the rates of people movement between villages. The results have important implications for the design of mass chemotherapy programmes for the elimination of human helminth transmission. This article is part of the theme issue 'Challenges and opportunities in the fight against neglected tropical diseases: a decade from the London Declaration on NTDs'.

Comparative Safety Surveillance of Triple (IDA) Versus Dual Therapy (DA) in Mass Drug Administration for Elimination of Lymphatic Filariasis in Kenya: A Cohort Event Monitoring Study.

INTRODUCTION: Dual diethylcarbamazine and albendazole (DA) therapy is the standard mass drug administration (MDA) regimen for lymphatic filariasis in Kenya. Following the recent World Health Organization recommendation, Kenya piloted triple therapy with ivermectin, diethylcarbamazine, and albendazole (IDA) in MDA. OBJECTIVE: We conducted a community-based, observational, cohort event monitoring study to compare the types, frequency, severity, and predictors of adverse events following dual versus triple therapy in 20,421 eligible residents. METHODS: Residents in Kilifi (n = 10,010) and Mombasa counties (n = 10,411) received DA and IDA through MDA campaigns, respectively. Adverse events were actively monitored through house-to-house visits on days 1, 2, and 7 after MDA. Any clinical events reported before and after MDA were cross-checked and verified to differentiate pre-existing events from MDA-associated adverse events. RESULTS: Overall, 5807 and 3102 adverse events were reported by 2839 and 1621 individuals in the IDA and DA groups, respectively. The incidence of experiencing one or more adverse events was significantly higher (p < 0.0001) in the IDA group (27.3%; 95% confidence interval [CI] 26.4-28.2) than in the DA group (16.2%; 95% CI 15.5-16.9). Dizziness (15.9% vs 5.9%) and drowsiness (10.1% vs 2.6%) were the most common adverse events and significantly higher in the IDA group compared with the DA group (p < 0.0001). Most adverse events were mild or moderate with a few severe cases (IDA = 0.05%; 95% CI 0.35-0.78, DA = 0.03%; 95% CI 0.14-0.60). Female sex, obesity, taking three or more diethylcarbamazine or ivermectin tablets, and having pre-existing clinical symptoms were significant predictors of adverse events following IDA treatment. CONCLUSIONS: Ivermectin, diethylcarbamazine, and albendazole as a combination is as safe and well tolerated as DA to use in MDA campaigns with no serious life-threatening adverse events. Systemic mild-to-moderate adverse events with a few severe cases and transient adverse events are more common with IDA treatment than with DA treatment. Hence, integrating pharmacovigilance into a MDA program is recommended for the timely detection and management of adverse events.

Geographic pair-matching in large-scale cluster randomized trials.

Custer randomized trials are often used to study large-scale public health interventions. In large trials, even small improvements in statistical efficiency can have profound impacts on the required sample size and cost. Pair matched randomization is one strategy with potential to increase trial efficiency, but to our knowledge there have been no empirical evaluations of pair-matching in large-scale, epidemiologic field trials. Location integrates many socio-demographic and environmental characteristics into a single feature. Here, we show that geographic pair-matching leads to substantial gains in statistical efficiency for 14 child health outcomes that span growth, development, and infectious disease through a re-analysis of two large-scale trials of nutritional and environmental interventions in Bangladesh and Kenya. We estimate relative efficiencies ≥1.1 for all outcomes assessed and relative efficiencies regularly exceed 2.0, meaning an unmatched trial would have needed to enroll at least twice as many clusters to achieve the same level of precision as the geographically pair-matched design. We also show that geographically pair-matched designs enable estimation of fine-scale, spatially varying effect heterogeneity under minimal assumptions. Our results demonstrate broad, substantial benefits of geographic pair-matching in large-scale, cluster randomized trials.

Understanding factors responsible for the slow decline of soil-transmitted helminthiasis following seven rounds of annual mass drug administration (2012-2018) among school children in endemic counties of Kenya: A mixed method study.

BACKGROUND: Soil-transmitted helminthiasis (STH) continue to be a significant health problem in Sub-Saharan Africa especially among school children. In Kenya, treatment of over five million children has been conducted annually in 28 endemic counties since the year 2012. However, the latest monitoring and evaluation (M&E) results indicated a slow decline of prevalence and intensity of STH in some counties after the seven rounds of annual mass drug administration (MDA). The current study sought to determine the factors associated with the slow decline in prevalence and intensity of STH among school children participating in the school deworming programme. METHODOLOGY: Mixed methods cross-sectional study was conducted in three endemic counties of Kenya. For quantitative technique, simple random sampling was used to select 1,874 school children from six purposively selected primary schools. The school children were interviewed, and a single stool collected and analysed using Kato-Katz technique. While for qualitative methods, 15 focus group discussions (FGDs) were conducted with purposively selected parents/guardians of school children. Data was collected through voice records using FGD and analyzed using NVIVO. FINDINGS: Prevalence of any STH infection was 30.8% (95%CI: 28.7-32.9), with the highest prevalence observed in Vihiga County (40.7%; 95%CI: 37.4-44.4). Multivariable analysis revealed that geographical location (OR = 3.78, (95%CI: 1.81-7.88) p<0.001), and not washing hands after defecation (OR = 1.91, (95%CI: 1.13-3.20) p = 0.015) were significantly associated with any STH infection. For qualitative analysis, majority of the parents/guardians of SAC felt that poor water sanitation and hygiene practices (WASH) both in school and household level could be a cause of continued STH infection. Also failing to include the rest of the community members in the MDAs were mentioned as possible contributors to observed slow decline of STH. CONCLUSIONS: There was moderate STH prevalence and mean intensity despite the seven rounds of repeated annual MDA. The study recommends a revamped awareness creation on WASH and community wide treatment.

Effects of water, sanitation, and hygiene interventions on detection of enteropathogens and host-specific faecal markers in the environment: a systematic review and individual participant data meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) improvements are promoted to reduce diarrhoea in low-income countries. However, trials from the past 5 years have found mixed effects of household-level and community-level WASH interventions on child health. Measuring pathogens and host-specific faecal markers in the environment can help investigate causal pathways between WASH and health by quantifying whether and by how much interventions reduce environmental exposure to enteric pathogens and faecal contamination from human and different animal sources. We aimed to assess the effects of WASH interventions on enteropathogens and microbial source tracking (MST) markers in environmental samples. METHODS: We did a systematic review and individual participant data meta-analysis, which included searches from Jan 1, 2000, to Jan 5, 2023, from PubMed, Embase, CAB Direct Global Health, Agricultural and Environmental Science Database, Web of Science, and Scopus, of prospective studies with water, sanitation, or hygiene interventions and concurrent control group that measured pathogens or MST markers in environmental samples and measured child anthropometry, diarrhoea, or pathogen-specific infections. We used covariate-adjusted regression models with robust standard errors to estimate study-specific intervention effects and pooled effect estimates across studies using random-effects models. FINDINGS: Few trials have measured the effect of sanitation interventions on pathogens and MST markers in the environment and they mostly focused on onsite sanitation. We extracted individual participant data on nine environmental assessments from five eligible trials. Environmental sampling included drinking water, hand rinses, soil, and flies. Interventions were consistently associated with reduced pathogen detection in the environment but effect estimates in most individual studies could not be distinguished from chance. Pooled across studies, we found a small reduction in the prevalence of any pathogen in any sample type (pooled prevalence ratio [PR] 0·94 [95% CI 0·90-0·99]). Interventions had no effect on the prevalence of MST markers from humans (pooled PR 1·00 [95% CI 0·88-1·13]) or animals (pooled PR 1·00 [95% CI 0·97-1·03]). INTERPRETATION: The small effect of these sanitation interventions on pathogen detection and absence of effects on human or animal faecal markers are consistent with the small or null health effects previously reported in these trials. Our findings suggest that the basic sanitation interventions implemented in these studies did not contain human waste and did not adequately reduce exposure to enteropathogens in the environment. FUNDING: Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation and the UK Foreign and Commonwealth Development Office.

Precision mapping of schistosomiasis and soil-transmitted helminthiasis among school age children at the coastal region, Kenya.

BACKGROUND: Accurate mapping of schistosomiasis (SCH) and soil transmitted helminths (STH) is a prerequisite for effective implementation of the control and elimination interventions. A precision mapping protocol was developed and implemented in the coastal region of Kenya by applying the current World Health Organization (WHO) mapping guide at a much lower administrative level (ward). METHODS: A two-stage cluster survey design was undertaken, with 5 villages in each ward selected. From within each village 50 households were randomly selected, and a single child between the ages of 8 and 14 sampled following appropriate assent. The prevalence and intensity of infection of Schistosoma mansoni and STH were determined using the Kato-Katz method (single stool, duplicate slides) and urine filtration for S. haematobium. RESULTS: Of the 27,850 school age children sampled, 6.9% were infected with at least one Schistosoma species, with S. haematobium being the most common 6.1% (95% CI: 3.1-11.9), and Tana River County having highest prevalence 19.6% (95% CI: 11.6-31.3). Prevalence of any STH infection was 5.8% (95% CI: 3.7-8.9), with Lamu County having the highest prevalence at 11.9% (95% CI: 10.0-14.1). The most prevalent STH species in the region was Trichuris trichiura at 3.1% (95% CI: 2.0-4.8). According to the WHO threshold for MDA implementation, 31 wards (in 15 sub-Counties) had a prevalence of ≥10% for SCH and thus qualify for annual MDA of all age groups from 2 years old. On the other hand, using the stricter Kenya BTS MDA threshold of ≥2%, 72 wards (in 17 sub-Counties) qualified for MDA and were targeted for treatment in 2021. CONCLUSIONS: The precision mapping at the ward level demonstrated the variations of schistosomiasis prevalence and endemicity by ward even within the same sub-counties. The data collected will be utilized by the Kenyan Ministry of Health to improve targeting.

Integrated survey of helminthic neglected tropical diseases and comparison of two mosquito sampling methods for lymphatic filariasis molecular xenomonitoring in the River Galana area, Kilifi County, coastal Kenya.

A lymphatic filariasis (LF) endemic focus along the River Galana/ Sabaki in Kilifi County, coastal Kenya, provided a platform to conduct an integrated survey for three helminthic neglected tropical diseases (NTDs), namely soil-transmitted helminthiasis (STH), schistosomiasis (SCH) and LF. Additionally, the study compared the performance of two mosquito trapping methods for LF molecular xenomonitoring (MX). Cross-sectional surveys measuring STH, SCH and LF prevalence were conducted in four villages. Mosquitoes were trapped using the CDC light trap (CDC-LT) and the Ifakara A tent trap (Ifakara-TT) methods and stored in pools which were tested for Wuchereria bancrofti DNA using the real-time polymerase chain reaction assay. A total of 907 people (436 adults; 471 children) participated in the parasitological testing. Among the STH infections, Trichuris trichiura and hookworms were most prevalent among the children and adult populations, respectively. The schistosome worm eggs detected belonged to the species Schistosoma haematobium and the prevalence of the infection was generally higher among the children compared with the adult population. The prevalence of LF infection among the adult population ranged from 1.8% to 7.6% across all 4 villages (P < 0.05). A total of 3,652 mosquitoes, including Anopheles, Culex, Mansonia, and Aedes species were collected. One mosquito pool consisting of Anopheles mosquitoes tested positive for filarial DNA out of 1,055 pools that were tested. The CDC-LT caught significantly more mosquitoes compared with the Ifakara-TT (P < 0.001). This study demonstrated that integrated epidemiological surveys using standard parasitological and entomological methods can provide useful information on co-endemic parasitic diseases which could help direct interventions and surveillance activities.

Intestinal Parasite Infections and Associated Risk Factors among Pre-School Aged Children in Kibera Informal Settlement, Nairobi, Kenya.

Background: Infections with intestinal parasites are a major public health problem in children in developing countries like Kenya. School going children are considered at most risk and are included in school-based de-worming program. Less focus is given to pre-school children and information is scarce about intestinal parasitosis among this age group. In this study, we determined the prevalence and intensity of protozoa and helminth infections, and associated risk factors in an informal settlement. Methods: A community based cross-sectional study was conducted from October 2016 to January 2017 among 406 children aged 2-5 years in Kibera informal settlements in Nairobi County, Kenya. Structured interviewer-administered questionnaire was used to collect sociodemographic information and data on associated factors. Stool samples were examined microscopically using formal ether concentration, iodine wet mounting, modified Ziehl-Neelsen staining, and Kato-Katz methods. Multivariable logistic regression analysis was used to identify risk factors associated with intestinal parasites. Results: The overall prevalence of any helminth and protozoa infections was 13.1% 53/406) and 22.4% (91/406) respectively. The predominant parasites were Giardia lamblia (13.8%), Ascaris lumbricoides (11.3%), Entamoeba histolytica/dispar (9.4%), Trichuris trichiura (3.9%), Entamoeba coli (1.5%) and hookworm (0.2%). Prevalence of co-infection with any helminths or protozoan was 2.7%. About 10.8% (44/406) and 20.7% (84/406) children were infected with single species of helminth and protozoan parasites. All helminth infections were light, with a mean intensity of 592 egg per gram. Intensity of any protozoan infections was heavy 62.6% (57/406). Dirt floors in the household (aOR = 2.22, p = .046), dirty toilets (aOR = 2.33, p=.014), water from communal taps (aOR = 0.27, p=.019), parent's education level (aOR=0.27, p=.032) and parent's earning (aOR =3.34, p=.007) were factors significantly associated with intestinal parasites. Conclusion: The study found both helminth and protozoan parasites to be prevalent among pre-school aged children in Kibera. Intervention measures including education on the improvement of hygiene and health, socio-economic conditions, sanitation, and provision of safe drinking water could reduce the prevalence of these infections.

Factors influencing school re-entry among adolescents in Kenya.

BACKGROUND: The number of out-of-school children and adolescents has been increasing globally. In sub-Saharan Africa, an estimated 23 million adolescents leave school due to poverty, teenage pregnancy, and unspecified illnesses. The reasons for absenteeism are well-known but the factors involved in the decision to return to school have not been analyzed. This study aimed to identify the factors that promote primary school re-entry among chronic adolescent absentees in rural sub-Saharan Africa. METHODS: Qualitative data were gathered through participant observation, in-depth interviews, and focus group discussions involving nine pupils who returned to school after chronic absenteeism and 140 adult stakeholders in Mbita sub-county, Kenya. Data were analyzed using thematic analysis. RESULTS: The thematic analysis results showed that four factors promoted school re-entry, namely: (1) social norms: "school for a better life"; (2) linkage of community and school; (3) supportive environment; and (4) using discipline to make adolescents serious about their education. CONCLUSIONS: School re-entry among chronic absentees in Mbita sub-county is promoted by both community and school factors. It was observed that social norms regarded an education as a "passport to a better life." Adolescents, teachers, and community leaders view education as a means of improving one's socio-economic status. Two essential elements of health-promoting schools, a supportive environment and a linkage with community, effectively promoted returning to the school among adolescents. The introduction of health-promoting schools was recommended to implement a school re-entry policy in Kenya effectively.

Has the double burden of malnutrition reached pupils in rural western Kenya?

BACKGROUND: Undernutrition and overnutrition have been considered separate challenges caused by the distinct factors in distinct settings. The double burden of malnutrition is defined as the coexistence of both undernutrition and overnutrition, which has now spread globally, especially in low- and middle-income countries. In Kenya, the double burden of malnutrition is present in the capital city but the situation in rural areas currently remains unknown. The aim of this study was therefore to analyze nutritional status in rural Kenya. METHODS: Data from height and weight measurements conducted by teachers in the third term of school year 2013 were collected from primary schools. Teachers were trained by experts before starting the measurements. The Z-scores of height-for-age, weight-for-age, and body mass index-for-age were calculated using AnthroPlus, and nutritional status was defined according to the World Health Organization guidelines. RESULTS: Data analyzed from 7,447 pupils (3,763 boys and 3,684 girls) showed that 12.4% were stunted and 7.8% were underweight among those ≤120 months old, and 11.7% were thin among those >120 months old. Boys were more likely to be stunted than girls. Boys were more likely to be underweight and girls were more likely to be overweight in the older age group. CONCLUSION: The double burden of malnutrition was not found, and undernutrition was still common among schoolchildren in the study area. However, it is important to monitor nutritional status due to adverse effects of rapid urbanization. Height and weight measurements in schools may be useful for monitoring the nutritional status of schoolchildren.

Diagnostics to support elimination of lymphatic filariasis-Development of two target product profiles.

As lymphatic filariasis (LF) programs move closer to established targets for validation elimination of LF as a public health problem, diagnostic tools capable of supporting the needs of the programs are critical for success. Known limitations of existing diagnostic tools make it challenging to have confidence that program endpoints have been achieved. In 2019, the World Health Organization (WHO) established a Diagnostic Technical Advisory Group (DTAG) for Neglected Tropical Diseases tasked with prioritizing diagnostic needs including defining use-cases and target product profiles (TPPs) for needed tools. Subsequently, disease-specific DTAG subgroups, including one focused on LF, were established to develop TPPs and use-case analyses to be used by product developers. Here, we describe the development of two priority TPPs for LF diagnostics needed for making decisions for stopping mass drug administration (MDA) of a triple drug regimen and surveillance. Utilizing the WHO core TPP development process as the framework, the LF subgroup convened to discuss and determine attributes required for each use case. TPPs considered the following parameters: product use, design, performance, product configuration and cost, and access and equity. Version 1.0 TPPs for two use cases were published by WHO on 12 March 2021 within the WHO Global Observatory on Health Research and Development. A common TPP characteristic that emerged in both use cases was the need to identify new biomarkers that would allow for greater precision in program delivery. As LF diagnostic tests are rarely used for individual clinical diagnosis, it became apparent that reliance on population-based surveys for decision making requires consideration of test performance in the context of such surveys. In low prevalence settings, the number of false positive test results may lead to unnecessary continuation or resumption of MDA, thus wasting valuable resources and time. Therefore, highly specific diagnostic tools are paramount when used to measure low thresholds. The TPP process brought to the forefront the importance of linking use case, program platform and diagnostic performance characteristics when defining required criteria for diagnostic tools.

Assessment of malaria infection among pregnant women and children below five years of age attending rural health facilities of Kenya: A cross-sectional survey in two counties of Kenya.

BACKGROUND: In Kenya, health service delivery and access to health care remains a challenge for vulnerable populations, particularly pregnant women and children below five years. The aim of this study, therefore, was to determine the positivity rate of Plasmodium falciparum parasites in pregnant women and children below five years of age seeking healthcare services at the rural health facilities of Kwale and Siaya counties as well as their access and uptake of malaria control integrated services, like antenatal care (ANC), offered in those facilities. METHODS: Cluster random sampling method was used to select pregnant women and children below five years receiving maternal and child health services using two cross-sectional surveys conducted in eleven rural health facilities in two malaria endemic counties in western and coastal regions of Kenya. Each consenting participant provided single blood sample for determining malaria parasitaemia using microscopy and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) techniques. RESULTS: Using PCR technique, the overall malaria positivity rate was 27.9% (95%CI: 20.9-37.2), and was 34.1% (95%CI: 27.1-42.9) and 22.0% (95%CI: 13.3-36.3) in children below five years and pregnant women respectively. Additionally, using microscopy, the overall positivity rate was 39.0% (95%CI: 29.5-51.6), and was 50.4% (95%CI: 39.4-64.5) and 30.6% (95%CI: 22.4-41.7) in children below five years and pregnant women respectively. Siaya County in western Kenya showed higher malaria positivity rates for both children (36.4% and 54.9%) and pregnant women (27.8% and 38.5%) using both PCR and microscopy diagnosis techniques respectively, compared to Kwale County that showed positivity rates of 27.2% and 37.9% for children and 5.2% and 8.6% for pregnant women similarly using both PCR and microscopy techniques respectively. Pregnant women presenting themselves for their first ANC visit were up to five times at risk of malaria infection, (adjusted odds ratio = 5.40, 95%CI: 0.96-30.50, p = 0.046). CONCLUSION: Despite evidence of ANC attendance and administration of intermittent preventive treatment with sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine (IPTp-SP) dosage during these visits, malaria positivity rate was still high among pregnant women and children below five years in these two rural counties. These findings are important to the Kenyan National Malaria Control Programme and will help contribute to improvement of policies on integration of malaria control approaches in rural health facilities.

Mapping of Podoconiosis Cases and Risk Factors in Kenya: A Nationwide Cross-sectional Study.

Podoconiosis is a type of tropical lymphedema that is clinically distinguished from lymphatic filariasis (LF) because it is ascending and commonly bilateral but asymmetric. The disease is a result of a genetically determined inflammatory reaction to long-term exposure to mineral particles in irritant red clay soils derived mainly from volcanic soils. We conducted the first nationwide mapping of the prevalence and risk factors of podoconiosis in Kenya. We performed a population-based cross-sectional survey to determine the national prevalence of podoconiosis and included 6,228 individuals from 48 villages in 24 sub-counties across 15 counties. Participants answered a questionnaire about the history of symptoms compatible with podoconiosis, received a point-of-care antigen test, and underwent a physical examination if they had lymphedema. A confirmed case of podoconiosis was defined as a case in a resident of the study village who had lower limb bilateral and asymmetric lymphedema lasting more than 1 year, negative test results for Wuchereria bancrofti antigen, and other causes of lymphedema ruled out. Of all the individuals surveyed, 89 had lymphedema; of those, 16 of 6228 (0.3%; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.1-0.5) were confirmed to have podoconiosis. A high prevalence of podoconiosis was found in western (Siaya, 3.1%; Busia, 0.9%) and central (Meru, 1.1%) regions, and a low prevalence was observed in northern (Marsabit, 0.2%), eastern (Makueni, 0.2%), and coastal (Tana River, 0.1%) regions. The identified risk factors were age 56 years or older (adjusted odds ratio [aOR], 5.66; 95% CI, 2.32-13.83; P < 0.001) and rarely wearing shoes (aOR, 18.92; 95% CI, 4.55-78.71; P < 0.001). These results indicated that the podoconiosis prevalence is low and localized in Kenya; therefore, elimination is achievable if appropriate disease prevention, management, and behavioral strategies are promoted.

Safety and Tolerability of Mass Diethylcarbamazine and Albendazole Administration for the Elimination of Lymphatic Filariasis in Kenya: An Active Surveillance Study.

Preventive chemotherapy with diethylcarbamazine citrate (DEC) and albendazole (ALB) is the core intervention strategy to eliminate lymphatic filariasis (LF). We conducted a large-scale prospective active safety surveillance study to identify the incidence, type, severity, and risk factors for adverse events (AEs) following mass drug administration (MDA) of single-dose DEC and ALB in 10,010 participants from Kilifi County, Kenya. AEs were actively monitored and graded at 24 h, 48 h, and on day 7 Post-MDA. Out of 10,010 enrolled study participants, 1621 participants reported a total of 3102 AEs during a seven-day follow-up. The cumulative incidence of AEs was 16.2% (95% CI, 15.5-16.9%). The proportion of participants who experienced one, two, or ≥three types of AEs was 9.2%, 4.6%, 2.4%, respectively. AEs were mild (87.3%), moderate (12.4%), and severe (0.3%) and resolved within 72 h. The five most common AEs were dizziness (5.9%), headache (5.6%), loss of appetite (3.3%), fever (2.9%), and drowsiness (2.6%). Older age, taking concurrent medications, ≥three tablets of DEC, and type of meal taken before MDA were significant predictors of AEs. One in six participants experienced systemic mild-to-moderate severity grading and transient AEs. DEC and ALB co-administration for the elimination of LF is generally safe and well-tolerated.