ABSTRACT
Background: In our analysis of adolescents affected by the 2016 Fort McMurray wildfire, we observed many negative mental health effects in individuals with a prior history of psychological trauma. Elevated rates of depression and markers of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) were observed, consistent with the hypothesis that prior trauma may reduce sensitivity thresholds for later psychopathology (stress sensitization). Surprisingly, levels of anxiety did not differ based on prior trauma history, nor were retraumatized individuals at increased risk for recent (past month) suicidal ideation. These results are more suggestive of inoculation by prior trauma than stress sensitization. This led us to consider whether individuals with a prior trauma history showed evidence of Post-Traumatic Growth (PTG), a condition in which the experience of a previous trauma leads to areas of sparing or even improvement. Method: To investigate this issue, we generated a structural equation model (SEM) exploring the role of anxiety in previously traumatized (n = 295) and wildfire trauma alone (n = 740) groups. Specifically, models were estimated to explore the relationship between hopelessness, anxiety, PTSD symptoms, self-efficacy and potential protective factors such as friend and family support in both groups. The model was tested using a cross-sectional sample of affected youth, comparing effects between the two groups. Results: While both models produced relatively good fit, differences in the effects and chi-squared values led us to conclude that the groups are subject to different causal specifications in a number of areas, although details warrant caution pending additional investigation. Discussion: We found that adolescents with a prior trauma history appear to have a more realistic appraisal of potential difficulties associated with traumatic events, and seem less reactive to potentially unsettling PTSD symptoms. They also seemed less prone to overconfidence as they got older, an effect seen in the adolescents without a history of trauma. Our findings provide preliminary evidence that the construct of anxiety may work differently in newly traumatized and retraumatized individuals, particularly in the context of mass trauma events.
ABSTRACT
In the wake of the massive Canadian wildfire of May 2016 in the area of Fort McMurray Alberta, we observed increased rates of mental health problems, particularly post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), in school-aged adolescents (ages 11-19). Surprisingly, we did not see these rates decline over the 3.5-year follow-up period. Additionally, our research suggested that the impact of this mass incident resulted in other unanticipated effects, including the finding that children who were not present for and relatively unaffected by the wildfire showed a similar PTSD symptom profile to children more directly involved, suggesting some degree of spillover or stress contagion. A potential explanation for these high rates in individuals who were not present could be undiagnosed retraumatization in some of the students. To investigate this possibility, we compared two groups of students: those who reported the wildfire as their most significant trauma (n = 740) and those who had their most significant trauma prior to the wildfire (n = 295). Those with significant pre-existing trauma had significantly higher rates of both depression and PTSD symptoms, although, unexpectedly the groups exhibited no differences in anxiety level. Taken together, this evidence suggests retraumatization is both longer-lasting and more widespread than might be predicted on a case-by-case basis, suggesting the need to reconceptualize the role of past trauma history in present symptomatology. These findings point to the need to recognize that crises instigated by natural disasters are mass phenomena which expose those involved to numerous unanticipated risks. New trauma-informed treatment approaches are required that incorporate sensitivity to the collective impact of mass crises, and recognize the risk of poorer long-term mental health outcomes for those who experienced trauma in the past.
ABSTRACT
In Fort McMurray, Alberta, Canada, the wildfire of May 2016 forced the population of 88,000 to rapidly evacuate in a traumatic and chaotic manner. Ten percentage of the homes in the city were destroyed, and many more structures were damaged. Since youth are particularly vulnerable to negative effects of natural disasters, we examined possible long-term psychological impacts. To assess this, we partnered with Fort McMurray Public and Catholic Schools, who surveyed Grade 7-12 students (aged 11-19) in November 2017, 2018, and 2019-i.e., at 1.5, 2.5, and 3.5 years after the wildfire. The survey included validated measurement scales for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, anxiety, drug use, alcohol use, tobacco use, quality of life, self-esteem, and resilience. Data analysis was done on large-scale anonymous surveys including 3,070 samples in 2017; 3,265 samples in 2018; and 3,041 samples in 2019. The results were unexpected and showed that all mental health symptoms increased from 2017 to 2019, with the exception of tobacco use. Consistent with this pattern, self-esteem and quality of life scores decreased. Resilience scores did not change significantly. Thus, mental health measures worsened, in contrast to our initial hypothesis that they would improve over time. Of note, we observed higher levels of mental health distress among older students, in females compared to male students, and in individuals with a minority gender identity, including transgender and gender-non-conforming individuals. These findings demonstrate that deleterious mental health effects can persist in youth for years following a wildfire disaster. This highlights the need for multi-year mental health support programs for youth in post-disaster situations. The indication that multi-year, post-disaster support is warranted is relatively novel, although not unknown. There is a need to systematically investigate factors associated with youth recovery following a wildfire disaster, as well as efficacy of psychosocial strategies during later phases of disaster recovery relative to early post-disaster interventions.
ABSTRACT
OBJECTIVES: To assess the likely prevalence rates of Major Depressive Disorder (MDD), Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) in staff of Fort McMurray School Districts eighteen months after a May 2016 wildfire, and to determine possible predictors. METHODS: A quantitative cross-sectional survey was used to collect data through self-administered online questionnaires to determine likely MDD, GAD and PTSD using well validated self-report questionnaires. RESULTS: Of 1,446 staff who were sent the online survey link in an e-mail, 197 completed the survey, of which there were 168 females (85%) and 29 males (15%). The one-month prevalence rates for likely MDD, GAD and PTSD among the school staff were 18.3, 15.7 and 10.2% respectively. There were statistically significant associations between multiple socio-demographic and clinical variables likely MDD, GAD and PTSD among respondents. CONCLUSION: Knowledge of key factors for MDD, GAD and PTSD may be helpful for policy makers when formulating population level social and clinical programs, to mitigate the mental health effects of future natural disasters.
ABSTRACT
Background: The May 2016 wildfire in Fort McMurray, Alberta, Canada forced evacuation of the population of 88,000 individuals and destroyed 10% of the homes. Youth are particularly impacted by disaster. Methods: Eighteen months after the wildfire, Fort McMurray Public and Catholic Schools surveyed 3,252 of the 4,407 students in Grades 7-12 to determine possible long-term psychological impacts. The survey included validated measurement scales for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, anxiety, use of drugs, alcohol, and tobacco, quality of life, self-esteem, and resilience. Data analysis was possible for only 3,070 students, i.e., 70% of the total student population. Anonymized data were analyzed to compare students who directly experienced lesser or greater impact from the wildfire, with greater impact defined as personally seeing the fire or having one's home destroyed. Also, students with greater or lesser scores on the Child and Youth Resilience Measure (CYRM-12) were compared. Results: Of the 3,070 students, 37% met criteria for probable PTSD; 31% met criteria for probable depression, and 17% for probable depression of at least moderate severity; 27% of students met criteria for probable anxiety, and 15% for probable alcohol or substance use disorder; 46% of all students met criteria for one or more probable diagnosis of PTSD, depression, anxiety, or alcohol/substance abuse, and this included students who were both present and not present in Fort McMurray at the time of the wildfire. Students with greater impact from the wildfire exhibited significantly higher scores on measures of PTSD, depression, anxiety, and alcohol/substance use. They also had lower self-esteem and quality of life scores. Students with lower resilience scores exhibited a similar pattern. Conclusions: These findings highlight first the negative impact of disasters on youth mental health, particularly for those who directly experience wildfire, and second the role of resilience on youth mental health, with lower resilience associated with substantially lower mental health outcomes. These results emphasize the need for long-term mental health supports for youth post-disaster, with specific focus on increasing youth resilience, which may serve as a protective factor against effects of disaster on mental health.
ABSTRACT
BACKGROUND: In order to examine the impact of disasters on adolescent mental health, this study compared population mental health survey data from two communities in Alberta, Canada: Fort McMurray, which experienced a major natural disaster, and Red Deer, which did not. METHODS: Data from 3070 grade 7-12 students from Fort McMurray, Alberta, Canada (collected in 2017, 18 months after the 2016 wildfire) was compared with data from 2796 grade 7-12 students from Red Deer, Alberta, Canada (collected in 2014). The same measurement scales were used for both surveys. Both of these cities have populations of approximately 100,000, and both cities are located in Alberta, Canada. For this reason, Red Deer is an appropriate non-disaster impacted community to compare to the disaster impacted community of Fort McMurray. RESULTS: The results of this comparison demonstrate that mental health symptoms were statistically significantly elevated in the Fort McMurray population when compared to the control population in Red Deer. This occurred for scores consistent with a diagnosis of depression (31% vs. 17%), moderately severe depression (17% vs. 9%), suicidal thinking (16% vs. 4%), and tobacco use (13% vs. 10%). Consistent with there being major mental health impacts from the 2016 Fort McMurray wildfire, self-esteem scores and quality of life scores were also statistically significantly lower in Fort McMurray. While the rates of anxiety disorder were similar (15% vs. 16%), the mean scores on the anxiety scale were slightly higher, with this difference reaching statistical significance. There were no statistical differences in the rates or scores for alcohol or substance use. CONCLUSIONS: Our results are consistent with previous findings showing a significant negative impact of disasters on many aspects of adolescent mental, with a particular increase in symptoms related to depression and suicidal thinking. These findings highlight first, the need to identify adolescents most at risk of developing psychiatric symptoms after experiencing the trauma of disaster and second, the importance and necessity of implementing short and long term mental health intervention programs specifically aimed at adolescents, in order to help mitigate the negative effects of disasters on their mental health.
