Representational maps in the brain: concepts, approaches, and applications.

Neural systems have evolved to process sensory stimuli in a way that allows for efficient and adaptive behavior in a complex environment. Recent technological advances enable us to investigate sensory processing in animal models by simultaneously recording the activity of large populations of neurons with single-cell resolution, yielding high-dimensional datasets. In this review, we discuss concepts and approaches for assessing the population-level representation of sensory stimuli in the form of a representational map. In such a map, not only are the identities of stimuli distinctly represented, but their relational similarity is also mapped onto the space of neuronal activity. We highlight example studies in which the structure of representational maps in the brain are estimated from recordings in humans as well as animals and compare their methodological approaches. Finally, we integrate these aspects and provide an outlook for how the concept of representational maps could be applied to various fields in basic and clinical neuroscience.

Impact of an artificial intelligence-aided endoscopic diagnosis system on improving endoscopy quality for trainees in colonoscopy: Prospective, randomized, multicenter study.

OBJECTIVE: This study was performed to evaluate whether the use of CAD EYE (Fujifilm, Tokyo, Japan) for colonoscopy improves colonoscopy quality in gastroenterology trainees. METHODS: The patients in this multicenter randomized controlled trial were divided into Group A (observation using CAD EYE) and Group B (standard observation). Six trainees performed colonoscopies using a back-to-back method in pairs with gastroenterology experts. The primary end-point was the trainees' adenoma detection rate (ADR), and the secondary end-points were the trainees' adenoma miss rate (AMR) and Assessment of Competency in Endoscopy (ACE) tool scores. Each trainee's learning curve was evaluated using a cumulative sum (CUSUM) control chart. RESULTS: We analyzed data for 231 patients (Group A, n = 113; Group B, n = 118). The ADR was not significantly different between the two groups. Group A had a significantly lower AMR (25.6% vs. 38.6%, P = 0.033) and number of missed adenomas per patient (0.5 vs. 0.9, P = 0.004) than Group B. Group A also had significantly higher ACE tool scores for pathology identification (2.26 vs. 2.07, P = 0.030) and interpretation and identification of pathology location (2.18 vs. 2.00, P = 0.038). For the CUSUM learning curve, Group A showed a trend toward a lower number of cases of missed multiple adenomas by the six trainees. CONCLUSION: CAD EYE did not improve ADR but decreased the AMR and improved the ability to accurately locate and identify colorectal adenomas. CAD EYE can be assumed to be beneficial for improving colonoscopy quality in gastroenterology trainees. TRIAL REGISTRATION: University Hospital Medical Information Network Clinical Trials Registry (UMIN000044031).

Stochastic resonance in sparse neuronal network: functional role of ongoing activity to detect weak sensory input in awake auditory cortex of rat.

The awake cortex is characterized by a higher level of ongoing spontaneous activity, but it has a better detectability of weak sensory inputs than the anesthetized cortex. However, the computational mechanism underlying this paradoxical nature of awake neuronal activity remains to be elucidated. Here, we propose a hypothetical stochastic resonance, which improves the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of weak sensory inputs through nonlinear relations between ongoing spontaneous activities and sensory-evoked activities. Prestimulus and tone-evoked activities were investigated via in vivo extracellular recording with a dense microelectrode array covering the entire auditory cortex in rats in both awake and anesthetized states. We found that tone-evoked activities increased supralinearly with the prestimulus activity level in the awake state and that the SNR of weak stimulus representation was optimized at an intermediate level of prestimulus ongoing activity. Furthermore, the temporally intermittent firing pattern, but not the trial-by-trial reliability or the fluctuation of local field potential, was identified as a relevant factor for SNR improvement. Since ongoing activity differs among neurons, hypothetical stochastic resonance or "sparse network stochastic resonance" might offer beneficial SNR improvement at the single-neuron level, which is compatible with the sparse representation in the sensory cortex.

Tartary Buckwheat Bran: A Review of Its Chemical Composition, Processing Methods and Food Uses.

Tartary buckwheat (Fagopyrum tataricum Gaertn.) containing large amounts of functional compounds with antioxidant activity, such as rutin, has attracted substantial research attention due to its industrial applications. Particularly, the functional compounds in Tartary buckwheat bran, an unexploited byproduct of the buckwheat flour milling process, are more concentrated than those in Tartary buckwheat flour. Thus, Tartary buckwheat bran is deemed to be a potential material for making functional foods. However, a review that comprehensively summarizes the research on Tartary buckwheat bran is lacking. Therefore, we highlighted current studies on the chemical composition of Tartary buckwheat bran. Moreover, the processing method and food uses of Tartary buckwheat bran are also discussed.

Efficacy and safety of vonoprazan-based regimen for Helicobacter pylori eradication therapy in Japanese adolescents: a prospective multicenter study.

BACKGROUND: Vonoprazan (VPZ)-based regimen for Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) is safe and more efficacious than the proton pump inhibitor-based regimen mainly in adults. This study aimed to evaluate the efficacy and safety of a VPZ-based regimen for H. pylori eradication therapy in adolescents. METHODS: An H. pylori screening and treatment longitudinal project for third-year junior high school students in Saga Prefecture began in 2016. Students who tested positive for both urine and stool tests received a VPZ-based regimen. On the checklist, students were asked for diarrhea, fever, abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, urticaria, dysgeusia, or bloody stool occurrence during the therapy. RESULTS: The longitudinal project for H. pylori screening and treatment among third-grade students in Saga Prefecture targeted 41,115 students from 2017 to 2021 and 836 as positive. Of the 645 students, 542 (84.0% in per protocol [PP] analysis and 73.6% in intention-to-treat [ITT] analysis) were successful in primary eradication therapy. The secondary eradication therapy was successful in 79 (96.3% in PP analysis and 76.7% in ITT analysis) of 82 students. In the primary eradication therapy, abdominal pain occurred in 164 (27.9%), diarrhea in 217 (36.9%), nausea or vomiting in 7 (1.2%), and urticaria in 13 (2.2%) students. In the secondary eradication therapy, abdominal pain occurred in 12 (19.4%) and diarrhea in 17 (27.4%) students. The eradication therapy of 5 students was interrupted due to adverse events only by primary eradication therapy. CONCLUSIONS: VPZ-based regimen for H. pylori was efficacious and safe for adolescents, as in adults, for both primary and secondary eradication therapies.

Peculiar properties of tuber starch in a potato mutant lacking the α-glucan water dikinase 1 gene GWD1 created by targeted mutagenesis using the CRISPR/dMac3-Cas9 system.

Glucose chains in starch are phosphorylated and contribute to structural stabilization. Phosphate groups contained in starch also play a role in retaining moisture. α-Glucan water dikinase 1 (GWD1) is involved in the phosphorylation of glucose chains in starch. In this study, we generated potato mutants of the GWD1 gene using the CRISPR/dMac3-Cas9 system. Observation of the phenotypes of the GWD1-deficient mutants revealed their physiological roles in tuber starch formation. The 4-allele mutants showed growth retardation and a delay in tuber formation. A significant decrease in phosphorus content was detected in the tuber starch of the gwd1 mutant. This mutant starch showed a higher amylose content than the wild-type starch, whereas its gelatinization temperature was slightly lower than that of the WT starch. The peak viscosity of the mutant starch was lower than that of the WT starch. These observations revealed that the starch of the gwd1 mutants had peculiar and unique properties compared to those of WT, sbe3 and gbss1 mutant starches. The amount of tissue-released water due to freeze-thawing treatment was determined on tubers of the gwd1 mutant and compared with those of WT and the other mutants. Significantly less water loss was found in the gwd1, sbe3 and gbss1 mutant tubers than in the WT tubers. Our results indicate that the GWD1 gene is not only important for potato growth, but also largely effective for the traits of tuber starch.

Variety-dependent accumulation of glucomannan in the starchy endosperm and aleurone cell walls of rice grains and its possible genetic basis.

Plant cell wall plays important roles in the regulation of plant growth/development and affects the quality of plant-derived food and industrial materials. On the other hand, genetic variability of cell wall structure within a plant species has not been well understood. Here we show that the endosperm cell walls, including both starchy endosperm and aleurone layer, of rice grains with various genetic backgrounds are clearly classified into two groups depending on the presence/absence of ß-1,4-linked glucomannan. All-or-none distribution of the glucomannan accumulation among rice varieties is very different from the varietal differences of arabinoxylan content in wheat and barley, which showed continuous distributions. Immunoelectron microscopic observation suggested that the glucomannan was synthesized in the early stage of endosperm development, but the synthesis was down-regulated during the secondary thickening process associated with the differentiation of aleurone layer. Significant amount of glucomannan in the cell walls of the glucomannan-positive varieties, i.e., 10% or more of the starchy endosperm cell walls, and its close association with the cellulose microfibril suggested possible effects on the physicochemical/biochemical properties of these cell walls. Comparative genomic analysis indicated the presence of striking differences between OsCslA12 genes of glucomannan-positive and negative rice varieties, Kitaake and Nipponbare, which seems to explain the all-or-none glucomannan cell wall trait in the rice varieties. Identification of the gene responsible for the glucomannan accumulation could lead the way to clarify the effect of the accumulation of glucomannan on the agronomic traits of rice by using genetic approaches.

Physicochemical Properties and In Vitro Digestibility of Starch from a Trace-Rutinosidase Variety of Tartary Buckwheat 'Manten-Kirari'.

We recently developed a novel Tartary buckwheat variety, 'Manten-Kirari', with trace-rutinosidase activity. The use of 'Manten-Kirari' enabled us to make rutin-rich food products with low bitterness. This study was intended to evaluate the physicochemical properties and in vitro digestibility of starch isolated from 'Manten-Kirari'. For comparison, the representative common buckwheat variety 'Kitawasesoba' and Tartary buckwheat variety 'Hokkai T8' in Japan were also used. The lowest content of amylose was found in 'Manten-Kirari' starch (18.1%) while the highest was in 'Kitawasesoba' starch (22.6%). 'Manten-Kirari' starch exhibited a larger median granule size (11.41 µm) and higher values of peak viscosity (286.8 RVU) and breakdown (115.2 RVU) than the others. The values of onset temperature for gelatinization were 60.5 °C for 'Kitawasesoba', 61.3 °C for 'Manten-Kirari', and 64.7 °C for 'Hokkai T8'. 'Manten-Kirari' and 'Hokkai T8' starches were digested more slowly than 'Kitawasesoba' starch. Our results will provide fundamental information concerning the expanded use of 'Manten-Kirari' in functional foods.

Utility and safety of the self-expandable metallic colonic stent in Japanese patients who received systemic chemotherapy or palliative treatment for obstructive primary advanced colorectal cancer: A retrospective single-center medical chart evaluation.

Background and Aim: The present study aimed to compare the utility and safety of the colonic self-expandable metallic stent between patients with obstructive primary colorectal cancer who underwent chemotherapy or palliative treatment care and patients bridging for surgery. Methods: The cases of 71 patients with colonic obstructive stenosis and in-dwelling stents who were hospitalized between May 2012 and April 2020 at Karatsu Red Cross Hospital were retrospectively analyzed. The patients were classified into three groups: bridging for curative surgery (group I), receiving systemic chemotherapy (group II-A), and receiving only palliative treatment (group II-B). Technical and clinical success rates and complication rates after stenting were evaluated. Results: No significant differences were observed in the technical (procedure) success rates (group I: 100%; group II, 97.6% [II-A: 100%; II-B: 95.8%]). The total clinical success rate was 85.9% (61/71) and did not vary significantly among the groups (group I: 82.8%; group II 88.0% [II-A: 83.3%; II-B: 91.6%]). No significant differences were observed in the early complication rates between groups I and II and in the late complication rates between groups II-A and II-B. Nutrition status, general condition, tumor staging, and 1-year survival were poorer in group II than in group I. Conclusion: The findings show that colonic stenting for malignant obstruction was performed successfully and safely both in patients who received systemic chemotherapy or palliative therapy and in patients bridging for curative surgery, regardless of risk status for malnutrition, poor general condition, cancer stage progression, and short survival.

Development of Novel Detection Method for Rutinosidase in Tartary Buckwheat (Fagopyrum tataricum Gaertn.).

Contamination of rutinosidase is a major problem for rutin-rich food due to the hydrolysis of the functional compound rutin and generation of strong bitterness caused by the hydrolyzed moiety quercetin. This problem sometimes occurs between the trace and normal rutinosidase Tartary buckwheat varieties. Here, we developed a simple and rapid method for rutinosidase detection in 'ripening seeds using UV light' and in 'dough using alum-flavonoid complexation' from Tartary buckwheat (Fagopyrum tataricum Gaertn.). Normal rutinosidase seeds can be distinguished from trace-rutinosidase mature seeds and ripening young seeds using a rutin solution by comparing the muddiness, which corresponds to quercetin generation. In dough, we detected a threefold relative increase in rutinosidase activity corresponding to 1% contamination of normal rutinosidase flour with trace-rutinosidase flour within 65 min. These methods do not require expensive apparatuses and toxic chemicals and are therefore promising for detecting and preventing contamination by rutinosidase, e.g., in food processing factories.

Efficient method for generating citrus hybrids with polyembryonic Satsuma mandarin as the female parent.

Many citrus fruits have polyembryonic traits, and their seeds contain many nucellar embryos along with a single zygotic embryo, affecting the crossbreeding process. Generally, nucellar embryos are considered to have more vigorous growth than zygotic embryos. Therefore, the in vitro method using an embryo rescue culture is often chosen to obtain zygotic embryo-derived individuals. Nevertheless, hybrids can be obtained with a certain probability from the seeds sown in the soil. The in-soil method, which sows seeds in the soil, has distinct advantages over the in vitro method, including lower cost and simpler technology. However, the efficiency of obtaining hybrids from these methods has not been compared in detail. The current study evaluates the effectiveness of these methods for obtaining hybrids using polyembryonic Satsuma mandarin as the female parent. The number of mature embryos per seed using the in-soil method was less than one-third of that produced using the in vitro method. Although the in vitro method produced more hybrids than the in-soil method, the ratio of the hybrids to the resulting population was significantly higher in the in-soil method. Thus, the in-soil method was more efficient and practical than the in vitro method for selecting hybrids from polyembryonic Satsuma mandarin seeds. The observations of the individuals obtained using the in-soil method suggest that zygotic embryos were not poorer in growth than nucellar embryos when using our selected parental combinations. Supplementary Information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s11032-022-01324-6.

Efficacy of elobixibat as bowel preparation agent for colonoscopy: Prospective, randomized, multi-center study.

BACKGROUND AND AIM: Elobixibat is a novel ileal bile acid transporter inhibitor. This study aimed to compare the efficacy, tolerability, and safety of the combination of elobixibat and 1 L of polyethylene glycol formulation containing ascorbic acid (PEG-Asc) solution versus the combination of sodium picosulfate and 1-L PEG-Asc solution as bowel preparation for colonoscopy. METHODS: This multi-center, randomized, observer-blinded, non-inferiority study recruited 210 outpatients who were assigned to either the elobixibat plus 1-L PEG-Asc group (group A) or the sodium picosulfate plus 1-L PEG-Asc group (group B). The quality of the bowel cleansing level was assessed by the Boston Bowel Preparation Scale (BBPS) and compared the bowel cleansing level between the groups. Data regarding bowel preparation time, patients' tolerability, and adverse events were also analyzed. RESULTS: Data for 196 patients (99 in group A and 97 in group B) were analyzed finally. BBPS was comparable between group A and B (8.3 ± 0.9 vs. 8.3 ± 0.7; P = 0.88). Consequently, the adequate bowel preparation rate in groups A and B was 95.0% and 99.0%, respectively (-4.0%, 95% CI -9.3 to 1.5). Bowel preparation time in group A was similar to that in group B (348.2 ± 79.8 min vs. 330.8 ± 82.5 min; P = 0.13), whereas, sleep disturbance was significantly less frequent in group A than in group B (10.2% vs. 22.7%; P = 0.02). CONCLUSIONS: The combination of elobixibat and 1-L PEG-Asc can be considered an alternative bowel preparation for colonoscopy considering the equivalent bowel cleansing effect and less frequent sleep disturbance. The Japan Registry of Clinical Trials (jRCTs41180026).

Roasted Tartary Buckwheat Bran as a Material for Producing Rutin-Rich Tea Beverages.

Tartary buckwheat bran, a byproduct of buckwheat milling, is commonly treated as waste. The present study examined the rutin content during successive infusions of roasted Tartary buckwheat bran and grain to develop a functional Tartary buckwheat tea. Samples (6 g) of roasted Tartary buckwheat bran and grain were rinsed with 300 mL of hot water (>95 °C) for 0.5 min. For the first infusion test, the tea infusion sample of roasted Tartary buckwheat bran contained a distinctly higher amount of rutin (389 mg/L) than that of the roasted Tartary buckwheat grain (68 mg/L). Overall, rutin was more effectively extracted from roasted Tartary buckwheat bran, as compared to roasted Tartary buckwheat grain.

Creation of a potato mutant lacking the starch branching enzyme gene StSBE3 that was generated by genome editing using the CRISPR/dMac3-Cas9 system.

The potato tuber starch trait is changed depending on the composition of amylose and amylopectin. The amount of amylopectin is determined by the activity of the starch branching enzymes SBE1, SBE2, and SBE3 in potato. SBE3, a homolog of rice BEI, is a major gene that is abundant in tubers. In this study, we created mutants of the potato SBE3 gene using CRISPR/Cas9 attached to the translation enhancer dMac3. Potato has a tetraploid genome, and a four-allele mutant of the SBE3 gene is desired. Mutations in the SBE3 gene were found in 89 of 126 transformants of potato plants. Among these mutants, 10 lines contained four mutant SBE3 genes, indicating that 8% efficiency of target mutagenesis was achieved. These mutants grew normally, similar to the wild-type plant, and yielded sufficient amounts of tubers. The potato starch in these tubers was similar to that of the rice BEI mutant. Western blot analysis revealed the defective production of SBE3 in the mutant tubers, suggesting that these transformants were loss-of-function mutants of SBE3.

Safety and Efficacy of the Noncessation Method of Antithrombotic Agents after Emergency Endoscopic Hemostasis in Patients with Nonvariceal Upper Gastrointestinal Bleeding: A Multicenter Pilot Study.

Background and Aims: The present study aimed to clarify the safety and efficacy of the noncessation method of antithrombotic agents after emergency endoscopic hemostasis in patients with nonvariceal upper gastrointestinal bleeding (UGIB). Methods: In this multicenter, prospective, pilot study, we performed emergency endoscopic hemostasis for nonvariceal UGIB in patients taking antithrombotic agents and resumed the medications without a cessation period (group A). The clinical characteristics, types of antithrombotic agents, UGIB etiology, treatment outcome, and adverse events were evaluated. We used propensity score matching to compare treatment outcomes and adverse events with our previous cohort (group B) in whom antithrombotic agents were transiently discontinued after emergency endoscopic hemostasis. Results: Forty-three consecutive patients were prospectively enrolled. The main antithrombotic agents were low-dose aspirin and direct oral anticoagulants; 11 patients (25.6%) were taking multiple antithrombotics. Peptic ulcers were the main cause of bleeding (95.4%). Endoscopic hemostasis was successful in all patients and the incidence of rebleeding within a month was 7.0%. Propensity score matching created 40 matched pairs. Endoscopic hemostasis was performed by soft coagulation significantly more frequently in group A than in group B (97.5% versus 60.0%, P < 0.001). Neither the rebleeding rate within a month nor thromboembolic event rate was different between the two groups. However, the mean duration of hospitalization was significantly shorter in group A than in group B (8.6 ± 5.2 d versus 14.4 ± 7.1 d, P < 0.001). Conclusions: Antithrombotic agents possibly can be continued after successful emergency endoscopic hemostasis for nonvariceal UGIB.

Breeding of Buckwheat to Reduce Bitterness and Rutin Hydrolysis.

Buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum) is recognized as an important traditional crop in some regions, and its taste is an important characteristic. Of the three cultivated buckwheat species, Tartary buckwheat (Fagopyrum tataricum) and perennial buckwheat (Fagopyrum cymosum) have strong bitterness in their seeds, which has prevented the wider use of the seeds of these varieties. In Tartary buckwheat, some studies have focused on the cause of strong bitterness generation. Tartary buckwheat seeds contain large amounts of the functional compounds rutin and rutinosidase, and rutin hydrolysis by rutinosidase has been found to be the trigger of rutin hydrolysis. Therefore, a variety with only a trace of rutinosidase and with reduced bitterness is required. The rutinosidase in Tartary buckwheat seeds consists of two major isozymes with very similar enzymatic characteristics, which can hydrolyze flour rutin within several minutes after the addition of water. Recently, the trace-rutinosidase variety Manten-Kirari in Tartary buckwheat was developed. The trace-rutinosidase characteristics were dominated by a single recessive gene. In 'Manten-Kirari' dough and foods, such as breads, confectionaries, and noodles, the rutin residual ratio was higher and bitterness was reduced compared to that of the normal-rutinosidase variety. In this review, we summarize the detailed research on the breeding of buckwheat related to reducing bitterness and rutin hydrolysis.

Gastrointestinal adverse reactions reduce the success rate of Helicobacter pylori eradication therapy: A multicenter prospective cohort study.

BACKGROUND: The screening and treatment of Helicobacter pylori infection for all junior high students in Saga Prefecture, Japan, were started in 2016. The present study aims to evaluate the influence of adverse reactions on the success of the eradication therapy. METHODS: From 2017 to 2019, 25,006 third-grade junior high school students were tested for urinary anti-H. pylori antibodies. Positive cases were confirmed by H. pylori stool antigen tests. Of the 531 students who were found to be H. pylori-positive, 390 (358 in first-line and 32 in second-line therapy) underwent eradication therapy, and 274 (242 in first-line and 32 in second-line) students actually completed a self-reported form to rate stool consistency (based on the Bristol Stool Scale), the maximum number of bowel movements, and abdominal symptoms during the 7 days of treatment. RESULTS: Among the 274 students, the total of primary and secondary eradication success rates was 87% (95% confidential interval: 82.9-90.1) in intention-to-treat analysis. On days 4, 5, and 6, stool consistency was looser in the primary eradication failure group than in the success group (p < .05). Looser stool consistencies were observed in male students with abdominal pain compared to those who did not experience pain (p < .05). Abdominal pain and diarrhea were detected in 28.5% and 42.7% of the subjects, respectively. The overall incidence of other adverse events was low (n = 8/274, 2.9%), and only two students discontinued treatment because of adverse events. CONCLUSIONS: Softening of the stool was related to the eradication failure in the junior high school students, especially in males with abdominal pain. Adverse effects did not induce discontinuation of the eradication treatment.

Potential application of simple easy-to-use insertion-deletion (InDel) markers in citrus cultivar identification.

We previously developed insertion-deletion (InDel) markers that distinguish three genotypes (two homozygous and one heterozygous) of diverse citrus cultivars. These InDel markers were codominant and could be clearly detected by using simple agarose gel electrophoresis. We sought to establish a method for cultivar identification using these 28 InDel markers to genotype 31 citrus cultivars. The results revealed that a minimum of 6 markers were required to identify individuals using the three-genotype classification method. Furthermore, we found that a simple method for distinguishing between two genotypes (homozygous and heterozygous) could be used to identify individuals using a minimum of 7 markers. Our findings provide a basis for the development of simple and rapid citrus cultivar identification methods.

The antiviral effects of baloxavir marboxil against influenza A virus infection in ferrets.

BACKGROUND: Baloxavir marboxil (BXM), the oral prodrug of baloxavir acid (BXA), greatly reduces virus titers as well as influenza symptoms of uncomplicated influenza in patients. OBJECTIVES: To investigate the pharmacokinetic profiles of BXA and its efficacy against influenza A virus infection in ferrets. METHODS: Ferrets were dosed orally with BXM (10 and 30 mg/kg twice daily for 1 day), oseltamivir phosphate (OSP) (5 mg/kg twice daily for 2 days) or vehicle to measure the antiviral effects of BXM and OSP. The pharmacokinetic parameters of BXA was determined after single oral dosing of BXM. RESULTS: The maximum plasma concentrations of BXA were observed at 1.50 and 2.00 hours with the two BXM doses, which then declined with an elimination half-life of 6.91 and 4.44 hours, respectively. BXM at both doses remained detectable in the plasma in ferrets, which may be due to higher stability in liver microsomes. BXM (10 and 30 mg/kg twice daily) treatment at Day 1 post-infection (p.i.) reduced virus titers by ≥3 log10 of the 50% tissue culture infective doses by Day 2, which was significantly different compared with vehicle or OSP. Body temperature drops over time were significantly greater with BXM than with vehicle or OSP. Significant reduction in virus titers was also demonstrated when BXM was administrated after symptom onset at Day 2 p.i. compared with vehicle and OSP, although body temperature changes largely overlapped between Day 2 and Day 4. CONCLUSIONS: The results highlight the rapid antiviral action of BXM with post-exposure prophylaxis or therapeutic dosing in ferrets and offer support for further research on prevention of influenza virus infection and transmission.