Bidirectional Optogenetic Control of Inhibitory Neurons in Freely-Moving Mice.

OBJECTIVE: Optogenetic manipulations of excitable cells enable activating or silencing specific types of neurons. By expressing two types of exogenous proteins, a single neuron can be depolarized using light of one wavelength and hyperpolarized with another. However, routing two distinct wavelengths into the same brain locality typically requires bulky optics that cannot be implanted on the head of a freely-moving animal. METHODS: We developed a lens-free approach for constructing dual-color head-mounted, fiber-based optical units: any two wavelengths can be combined. RESULTS: Here, each unit was comprised of one 450 nm and one 638 nm laser diode, yielding light power of 0.4 mW and 8 mW at the end of a 50 micrometer multimode fiber. To create a multi-color/multi-site optoelectronic device, a four-shank silicon probe mounted on a microdrive was equipped with two dual-color and two single-color units, for a total weight under 3 g. Devices were implanted in mice expressing the blue-light sensitive cation channel ChR2 and the red-light sensitive chloride pump Jaws in parvalbumin-immunoreactive (PV) inhibitory neurons. The combination of dual-color units with recording electrodes was free from electromagnetic interference, and device heating was under 7°C even after prolonged operation. CONCLUSION: Using these devices, the same cortical PV cell could be activated and silenced. This was achieved for multiple cells both in neocortex and hippocampus of freely-moving mice. SIGNIFICANCE: This technology can be used for controlling spatially intermingled neurons that have distinct genetic profiles, and for controlling spike timing of cortical neurons during cognitive tasks.

Covalency is Frustrating: La2Sn2O7 and the Nature of Bonding in Pyrochlores under High Pressure-Temperature Conditions.

Natural specimens of the pyrochlore (A2B2O7) compounds have been found to retain foreign actinide impurities within their parent framework, undergoing metamictization to a fully amorphous state. The response to radionuclide decay identifies pyrochlore systems with having high radiation tolerance and tailored use in radioactive waste applications and radionuclide sequestration. High pressure is a powerful pathway to high density states and amorphization with parallels to radiation-induced processes. Here, La2Sn2O7 is evaluated under extreme conditions via the combination of laser heating in a diamond anvil cell with X-ray diffraction and Raman spectroscopy. The measurements are supported by ab initio random structure searching and molecular dynamics calculations. A new ground state at 70 GPa is revealed, and high temperature annealing is fundamental to access its crystalline ground state and fully determine the structure. This crystalline phase ( P21/ c) retains its structural integrity during decompression and is fully recoverable to ambient conditions. The final state of the system is shown to be highly pathway dependent due to the covalent nature of the Sn-O bonding. The Tc pyrochlore, La2Tc2O7, is analyzed for similarities in the bonding to determine the likelihood of an analogous pathway dependency to a final state.

New Phases and Dissociation-Recombination of Hydrogen Deuteride to 3.4 Mbar.

We present infrared absorption studies of solid hydrogen deuteride to pressures as high as 340 GPa (100 GPa=1 Mbar) in a diamond anvil cell and temperatures in the range 5-295 K. Above 198 GPa the HD sample transforms to a mixture of HD, H_{2}, and D_{2}, interpreted as a process of dissociation and recombination. Three new phase lines are observed, two of which differ remarkably from those of the high-pressure homonuclear species, but none are metallic. The time-dependent spectral changes are analyzed to determine the molecular concentrations as a function of time; the nucleon exchange achieves steady state concentrations in ∼20 h at ∼200 GPa.

Image analysis of speckle patterns as a probe of melting transitions in laser-heated diamond anvil cell experiments.

The precision of melting curve measurements using laser-heated diamond anvil cell (LHDAC) is largely limited by the correct and reliable determination of the onset of melting. We present a novel image analysis of speckle interference patterns in the LHDAC as a way to define quantitative measures which enable an objective determination of the melting transition. Combined with our low-temperature customized IR pyrometer, designed for measurements down to 500 K, our setup allows studying the melting curve of materials with low melting temperatures, with relatively high precision. As an application, the melting curve of Te was measured up to 35 GPa. The results are found to be in good agreement with previous data obtained at pressures up to 10 GPa.