Exploring Consumer Preferences and Challenges in Hybrid Meat Products: A Conjoint Analysis of Hotdogs.

Plant-based meat has been the primary strategy to reducing meat consumption. While this category has demonstrated success, with the market value estimated to reach USD 20 billion by 2023, the subsequent reduction in meat consumption has not been proportionate. An alternative approach is hybrid products, which are thought to produce products that more closely resemble meat products. However, whether consumers will be willing to purchase hybrid products remains uncertain. Therefore, the present study uses a conjoint analysis approach to assess the product features driving the selection of a hybrid hotdog. This approach uncovers factors driving consumers' purchase intentions for hybrid meat products when offered as a choice against 100% plant-based and 100% beef products. In an online survey, participants (n = 454; 45.6% female) were asked to select the product they would be most willing to purchase, varying in four characteristics: protein source, price, fat content, and price. Following this task, participants answered questions related to meat attachment, food neophobia, health, ecological, social, and moral motives regarding food consumption. The results revealed that protein source was the most important factor driving product selection, followed by price, fat, and packaging claims (35%, 24%, 21%, and 20% relative importance, respectively). In this study, hybrid hotdogs were the least preferred to beef and plant-based (-16, -2.5, and 18 part-worth utility, respectively). These product-specific attributes (protein, fat, and price) had distinct relationships with the choices of hybrid, plant-based, and hybrid hotdogs, with these factors together explaining slightly more variability in the selection of hybrid (9%) compared to plant-based (7%) and beef hotdogs (4%). For hybrid hotdogs, protein had the greatest influence (B = -1.2) followed by fat (B = -0.8) and price (B = -0.5). Interestingly, person-related parameters (health, meat attachment, ethics, and food neophobia) had no relationship with the selection of hybrid hotdogs, contrary to plant-based (7%) and beef hotdogs (5%). This influence of the different parameters on the selection of hybrid meat is thought to be due to the lack of consumer knowledge and familiarity with hybrid products. The current understanding of plant-based products may not correspond to hybrid products. Engaging with consumers during the development of these products is critical to ensure consumer acceptance and thus support the transition to a more sustainable diet.

Differential Activation of TAS2R4 May Recover Ability to Taste Propylthiouracil for Some TAS2R38 AVI Homozygotes.

Bitterness from phenylthiocarbamide and 6-n-propylthiouracil (PROP) varies with polymorphisms in the TAS2R38 gene. Three SNPs form two common (AVI, PAV) and four rare haplotypes (AAI, AAV, PVI, and PAI). AVI homozygotes exhibit higher detection thresholds and lower suprathreshold bitterness for PROP compared to PAV homozygotes and heterozygotes, and these differences may influence alcohol and vegetable intake. Within a diplotype, substantial variation in suprathreshold bitterness persists, and some AVI homozygotes report moderate bitterness at high concentrations. A second receptor encoded by a gene containing a functional polymorphism may explain this. Early work has suggested that PROP might activate TAS2R4 in vitro, but later work did not replicate this. Here, we identify three TAS2R4 SNPs that result in three diplotypes-SLN/SLN, FVS/SLN, and FVS/FVS-which make up 25.1%, 44.9%, and 23.9% of our sample. These TAS2R4 haplotypes show minimal linkage disequilibrium with TAS2R38, so we examined the suprathreshold bitterness as a function of both. The participants (n = 243) rated five PROP concentrations in duplicate, interleaved with other stimuli. As expected, the TAS2R38 haplotypes explained ~29% (p < 0.0001) of the variation in the bitterness ratings, with substantial variation within the haplotypes (AVI/AVI, PAV/AVI, and PAV/PAV). Notably, the TAS2R4 diplotypes (independent of the TAS2R38 haplotypes) explained ~7-8% of the variation in the bitterness ratings (p = 0.0001). Given this, we revisited if PROP could activate heterologously expressed TAS2R4 in HEK293T cells, and calcium imaging indicated 3 mM PROP is a weak TAS2R4 agonist. In sum, our data are consistent with the second receptor hypothesis and may explain the recovery of the PROP tasting phenotype in some AVI homozygotes; further, this finding may potentially help explain the conflicting results on the TAS2R38 diplotype and food intake.

Comparison of Physical and Compositional Attributes between Commercial Plant-Based and Dairy Yogurts.

A primary strategy led by the food industry to improve the sustainability of the agricultural food supply is the development of modern plant-based alternatives. The information provided via marketing and product packaging provides consumers with the expectation that these products provide a similar product experience to conventional products, yet it is not well understood whether these commercial alternative products are comparable to traditional animal-based products. To aid in developing improved plant-based products, this study aimed to compare the quality and physical attributes of commercially available plant-based and dairy yogurts. Using instrumental methods, commercially available yogurt products were analyzed for their pH, titratable acidity, color, water activity, moisture content, and rheology, which included 13 plant-based (almond, cashew, coconut, oat, soy) and 8 whole-milk dairy yogurts. The present study reveals that the plant-based and dairy yogurts had no significant differences in pH, lactic acid, water activity, or moisture content. However, there were significant differences in the color and texture properties between the plant-based and dairy yogurts. Additionally, significant differences were observed across the plant-based yogurt products in terms of their color and texture properties. This highlights the need for additional studies to determine how individual ingredients influence the physical characteristics and textural properties to direct the development of plant-based yogurts. Improving upon the physicochemical properties of plant-based yogurt may encourage more consumers to adopt a more sustainable diet.

Nutrient Density, Added Sugar, and Fiber Content of Commercially Available Fruit Snacks in the United States from 2017 to 2022.

Fruit snacks have become a popular and convenient snacking choice and have the potential to contribute to a well-balanced diet. However, the nutritional quality of fruit snack products has not yet been studied. The objective of the present study is to provide a nutritional assessment of the fruit snack product category. This study used the Mintel Global New Product Database to collect data about fruit snack products launched in the United States from 2017 to 2022. Fruit snack products (n = 2405) are divided into nine product categories based on product characteristics. Nutrition composition was assessed using a comprehensive score, Nutrient Rich Food (NRF) model, and by examining individual components (added sugar and fiber). The results show that dried fruit has the highest nutrient density, fiber content, and the lowest added sugar content. Conversely, fruit-flavored snacks have the lowest nutrient density, fiber content, and added sugar content. Currently, fruit puree, canned fruit with juice, and dried fruit are the only fruit snacks that meet the current recommendations set by the USDA Dietary Guidelines. Future directions for the fruit snack category should consider decreasing the added sugar content, increasing the fiber content, and enhancing their sensory profile to improve the overall nutrient density.

Sucrose, NaCl, and citric acid suppress the metallic sensation of FeSO4.

Metallic sensation is often described as unpleasant and can reduce acceptance of foods and beverages and compliance with medication. Masking and suppressing aversive sensations can help to improve acceptance of these products, with many successful strategies identified for bitterness. However, there are few studies investigating effective strategies for suppressing metallic sensation. This study aims to assess the effectiveness of mixture suppression to reduce the metallic sensation elicited from ferrous sulfate and examine whether individual differences in metallic sensation are associated with the effectiveness of suppression strategies. To achieve this, participants (n = 121) reported the intensity of suprathreshold concentrations of ferrous sulfate alone and in binary mixtures with three tastants, specifically, sucrose, citric acid, and sodium chloride. The results revealed that metallic sensation ratings were significantly lower for every binary mixture tested compared to ferrous sulfate presented in isolation. For 0.3 mM ferrous sulfate, sucrose was identified to be the most effective compound in suppressing metallic sensation, followed by citric acid and sodium chloride. For the 1.0 mM ferrous sulfate solutions, all tastants were equally effective at suppressing metallic sensation. In addition, there is a significant interaction between the perceived metallic intensity and the effectiveness of each strategy. These findings suggest that sucrose, citric acid, and sodium chloride have the potential to be effective in suppressing metallic sensation.

Inducible desensitization to capsaicin with repeated low-dose exposure in human volunteers.

Responses to capsaicin are reduced following repeated exposure, a phenomenon known as capsaicin desensitization. Heavy consumers of chilies consistently report reduced oral burn relative to infrequent consumers, presumably due to chronic desensitization. However, the mechanism(s) underlying capsaicin desensitization remain poorly understood. We hypothesized that reduced response to capsaicin due to repeated oral exposure may result from a change in the expression of the capsaicin receptor (TRPV1) gene. To test this, we conducted two longitudinal desensitization studies in healthy human volunteers. In Study 1, 51 adults completed a 17-day capsaicin desensitization protocol. The study consisted of three in-person visits where they were asked to sample stimuli, including 3, 6, and 9 ppm capsaicin, and rate intensity on a general labeled magnitude scale (gLMS). Between days 3 & 17, participants rinsed at home with 6 ppm capsaicin (n = 31) or a control (n = 20) solution (20 uM sucrose octaccetate; SOA) twice a day. Before and after the oral exposure protocol, a clinician collected fungiform papillae. Participants randomized to the capsaicin rinse showed a statistically significant reduction in oral burn ratings that was not observed in controls, indicating repeated low-dose exposure can systematically induce desensitization. TRPV1 expression was not associated with reported capsaicin burn, and there was no evidence of a decrease in TRPV1 expression following capsaicin exposure. In Study 2, participants (n = 45) rinsed with 6 ppm capsaicin in a similar protocol, rating capsaicin, vanillyl butyl ether (VBE), cinnamaldehyde, ethanol, menthol, and sucrose on days 1, 3, & 17. Burn from capsaicin, VBE, cinnamaldehyde, and ethanol all showed a statistically significant change - capsaicin, VBE and cinnamaldehyde burn all dropped ∼20 %, and a larger reduction was seen for ethanol - while menthol cooling and sucrose sweetness did not change. Collectively, this suggests reductions in oral burn following chronic capsaicin exposure generalizes to other stimuli (i.e., cross desensitization) and this cannot be explained by a change in TRPV1 mRNA expression. More work is needed to elucidate the underlying mechanism for capsaicin desensitization in the oral cavity.

Sucrose Concentration and Fermentation Temperature Impact the Sensory Characteristics and Liking of Kombucha.

Kombucha is a fermented tea beverage consumed for its probiotics and functional properties. It has a unique sensory profile driven by the properties of tea polyphenols and fermentation products, including organic acids. Fermentation temperature and sucrose content affect the fermentation process and the production of organic acids; yet less is known about their impacts on the sensory profile and consumer acceptance. Thus, we aimed to examine the impact of sucrose concentration and fermentation temperature on sensory attributes and liking. For this study, kombucha tea was fermented at three different concentrations of sucrose and fermented at two temperatures for 11 days. Fermentation was monitored by pH, brix, and titratable acidity, and consumers (n = 111) evaluated the kombucha for sensory attributes and overall liking. The fermentation temperature resulted in significant differences in titratable acidity, with higher temperatures producing more organic acids, resulting in higher astringency, and suppressed sweetness. The lower fermentation was reported as significantly more liked, with no difference in liking between the 7.5% and 10% sucrose kombucha samples. Fermentation temperature had the greatest impact on the sensory profile rather than sucrose concentration, which had a greater effect on the fermentation rate and production organic acids.

A comparison of the nutritional profile and nutrient density of commercially available plant-based and dairy yogurts in the United States.

Introduction: Plant-based yogurts are sustainable alternatives to dairy yogurts, but a nutritional comparison of plant-based yogurts within the context of dairy yogurts has not yet been applied to commercially available products in the United States. Dairy yogurts provide significant dietary nutrients, and substituting plant-based yogurts may have unintended nutritional consequences. The objective of this study was to compare the macronutrient and micronutrient values of commercially available plant-based and dairy yogurts launched between 2016 and 2021. Methods: Nutritional information for yogurts were collected through Mintel Global New Products Database, and products were categorized according to their primary ingredient. Regular-style yogurts (n = 612) were included in this study: full-fat dairy (n = 159), low and nonfat dairy (n = 303), coconut (n = 61), almond (n = 44), cashew (n = 30), and oat (n = 15). We utilized the Nutrient Rich Foods (NRF) Index, a comprehensive food guidance system that assigns a score based on the nutrient density of individual foods. This allowed us to compare the nutritional density of the yogurts based on nutrients to encourage (protein, fiber, calcium, iron, potassium, vitamin D) and nutrients to limit (saturated fat, total sugar, sodium). Results: Compared to dairy yogurts, plant-based yogurts contained significantly less total sugar, less sodium, and more fiber. However, plant-based yogurts contained significantly less protein, calcium, and potassium than dairy yogurts. The yogurts were ranked from the highest to lowest nutrient density based on the NRF Index as follows: almond, oat, low and nonfat dairy, full-fat dairy, cashew, and coconut. Almond yogurts scored significantly higher than all other yogurts, indicating the highest nutrient density. Discussion: The highest NRF scores were awarded to almond and oat yogurts, likely a result of their low levels of total sugar, sodium, and saturated fat. By applying the NRF model to plant-based and dairy yogurts, we have identified opportunities for the food industry to improve the formulation and nutritional composition of plant-based yogurts. In particular, fortification is an opportunity to improve plant-based yogurt nutritional properties.

Taste loss in cancer patients: clinicians' perceptions of educational materials and diagnostic tools.

PURPOSE: Cancer therapy is essential and lifesaving; however, it can have short- and long-term consequences on patients' health. Up to 87% of cancer patients report changes in taste function, yet patients report a lack of support from clinicians regarding their experience with taste loss during and following treatment. Thus, the objective of this study was to assess clinicians' knowledge and experience with managing patients with taste loss and identify potential gaps in the availability of educational materials and diagnostic tools. METHOD: In an online survey, sixty-seven participants who identify as clinicians and practice in the United States and work with cancer patients that complain of taste problems answered questions on their knowledge and experience supporting cancer patients experiencing changes in taste function and provided their opinion on access to educational materials. RESULTS: The current study reports gaps in participants' knowledge of taste and taste disorder terminology, with 15.4% correctly defining both taste and flavor and roughly half were familiar with specific taste disorder classifications. Over half of the participants reported not having access to adequate information to help their patients manage taste alterations. Only two-thirds of participants reported routinely asking patients if they are experiencing changes in taste function. CONCLUSION: Clinicians' responses emphasized the need to improve access to educational materials regarding taste changes and increase the availability of information regarding management strategies. Addressing these inequities in education and improving the standard of care is the first step in improving the care for cancer patients suffering from altered taste function.

Texture properties of foods targeted for individuals with limited oral processing capabilities: the elderly, dysphagia, and head and neck cancer patients.

Food texture remains a key sensory attribute for food enjoyment, with the potential to modulate food intake, particularly in individuals with limited oral processing capabilities (OPC) such as the elderly, dysphagia, and head and neck cancer (HNC) patients. However, information relating to the textural quality of foods for these consumers is limited. Unsuitable food textures can cause food aspiration, lower meal enjoyment, reduce food/nutrient intake, and potentially lead to malnutrition. The objective of this review was to critically examine the state-of-the-art scientific literature on the textural properties of foods for individuals with limited OPC, identify existing gaps in research, and appraise the rheological-sensory textural design of optimal foods for individuals with limited OPC to improve eating safety, food intake, and nutritional status. Depending on the food type and nature of oral hypofunction, many foods for individuals with limited OPC have very low or too high viscosity, with low cohesiveness and high values for hardness, thickness, firmness, adhesiveness, stickiness, and slipperiness. Fragmented stakeholder approaches, the non-Newtonian nature of foods, the complexity of in vivo, objective food oral processing evaluation, suboptimal application of sensory science and psycho rheology, and research methodological weaknesses are some of the obstacles to addressing texture-related dietary challenges for individuals with limited OPC. There is a need to explore various multidisciplinary strategies for food texture optimization and interventions to improve food intake and nutritional status amongst people with limited OPC.

Health- or Environmental-Focused Text Messages to Increase Consumption of a Sustainable Diet among Young Adults: Importance of Expected Taste.

Taste is a frequently cited barrier to the greater adoption of plant-based foods, a dietary pattern associated with both health and environmental benefits. To examine the role of expected taste in promoting greater adoption of plant-based foods, we examined the impact of a text-message intervention on the expected taste of both meat- and plant-protein foods. Young adults (n = 159) were randomly assigned to receive either health- or environment-focused text messages twice a week for eight weeks. Study measures (pre- and post-) included dietary recalls, the expected tastiness of meat- and plant-protein images and plant-based diets, consumption intention, and person-related factors such as moral satisfaction and the subjective norms of plant-based eating and health and environmental values. Participants rating plant-protein foods tastier at baseline were more likely to report higher actual (p < 0.001) and intended (p = 0.017) consumption of plant proteins following the intervention. While text messages had a limited effect on altering the expected taste of specific plant-protein foods, the messages did elevate the expected tastiness of plant-based diets. Baseline person-related factors positively predicted changes in expected tastiness of plant-based diets. Messages promoting plant-based foods may be more effective if these foods are first perceived as tasty. Furthermore, incorporating person-related considerations into messaging strategies may improve the expected taste of plant-based foods.

Examining the Influence of Chemosensation on Laryngeal Health and Disorders.

Inhaled airborne stimuli are associated with laryngeal disorders affecting respiration. Clinically, several themes emerged from the literature that point to specific gaps in the understanding and management of these disorders. There is wide variation in the types of airborne stimuli that trigger symptoms, lack of standardization in provocation challenge testing using airborne stimuli, and vague reporting of laryngeal symptoms. Scientifically, evidence exists outside the field of voice science that could prove useful to implement among patients with impaired laryngeal-respiration. To expand this area of expertise, here we provide a thematic overview of relevant evidence and methodological tools from the discipline of chemosensory sciences. This review provides distinctions across the three chemosensory systems of olfaction, trigeminal chemesthesis, and gustation, guidance on selecting and delivering common chemosensory stimuli for clinical testing, and methods of quantifying sensory experiences using principles of human psychophysics. Investigating the science of chemosensation reveals that laryngeal responses to inhaled airborne stimuli have explanations involving physiological mechanisms as well as higher cognitive processing. Fortunately, these findings are consistent with current pharmacological and nonpharmacological interventions for impaired laryngeal-respiration. Based on the close relationships among inhaled airborne stimuli, respiration, and laryngeal function, we propose that new perspectives from chemosensory sciences offer opportunities to improve patient care and target areas of future research.

Variation in TAS2R receptor genes explains differential bitterness of two common antibiotics.

For pharmaceuticals to deliver their full benefits with maximum efficacy, patients need to follow recommended dosing schedules, in terms of amount and frequency. Unfortunately, the aversive taste of many drugs, especially bitterness, can reduce patient compliance in oral liquid formulations. Given common genetic differences in bitter taste receptor genes (TAS2Rs), some individuals may be at increased risk for poor compliance due to heightened bitterness that becomes a barrier to proper use. Here we report on the sensory profile of two antibiotics, chloramphenicol and ofloxacin, investigating whether bitterness intensity associates with nominally functional TAS2R variants. Participants (n = 143) rated suprathreshold intensity on a general Labeled Magnitude Scale (gLMS) for chloramphenicol and ofloxacin; propylthiouracil (PROP) was included as a control, given robust prior associations with TAS2R38 variants. The dominant sensation from chloramphenicol and ofloxacin was bitterness, falling just below "moderate" on a gLMS. TAS2R38 diplotype associated with variable bitterness of chloramphenicol and PROP, but not ofloxacin. The bitterness of ofloxacin associated with a TAS2R9 SNP (V187A). This pilot study provides novel evidence on differences in the bitterness from two antibiotics, which are associated with TAS2R variants. Improved understanding of individualized barriers to patient compliance, especially for oral formulations, can guide future efforts to optimize delivery systems for improved compliance.

The role of saliva in taste dysfunction among cancer patients: Mechanisms and potential treatment.

Two of the highest prevalent symptoms reported by cancer patients are taste dysfunction (17.6-93%) and dry mouth/xerostomia (40.4-93%). While it has been hypothesized that reduced saliva may impair taste function, few studies investigate the co-occurrence of taste and dry mouth symptoms in cancer patients. This review provides a summary of the physiological relationship between saliva and taste, focusing on taste transduction mechanism, regulation of the taste sensitivity, and protection of taste receptor cells, including the impact of cancer treatments and malignancy on saliva function, salivary components, and the mechanisms in which it can negatively impact the taste function. Here, the authors present a scoping review of the recent literature reporting on the association between taste dysfunction and dry mouth in cancer patients, including reports of non-pharmaceutical liposomal agents or drugs taken to improve dry mouth symptoms that also assess taste dysfunction. Considering the complexities of cancer and cancer treatment, understanding the physiological relationship between saliva and taste function may provide important insight into identifying treatments for alleviating taste dysfunction and dry mouth symptoms. There are substantial research gaps given the limited studies assessing the co-occurrence of taste loss and dry mouth and inconsistencies in the assessment of these symptoms. Clinical studies examining taste dysfunction will provide a foundational groundwork that will help understand the relationship between taste and saliva. Considering the increased rates in survivorship and the significant negative impact of taste dysfunction on quality of life, more research is needed to reduce the suffering of cancer patients.

Physicochemical Properties and Mouthfeel in Commercial Plant-Based Yogurts.

There is a growing need for plant-based yogurts that meet consumer demands in terms of texture. However, more research is required to understand the relationship between physicochemical and mouthfeel properties in plant-based yogurts. The purpose of this study was to determine the physicochemical properties of five commercial plant-based yogurt alternatives with different chemical compositions, making comparisons to dairy yogurts and thick, creamy, thin, and watery mouthfeel sensations. The physicochemical parameters studied included large and small deformation rheology, particle size, soluble solids, acidity, and chemical composition. Significant differences in flow behavior and small deformation rheology were found between dairy- and plant-based yogurts. Among plant-based yogurts thick, creamy, thin, and watery mouthfeel sensations were strongly associated with steady shear rates and apparent viscosity. The results highlight the importance of large deformation rheology to advance the use of plant-based ingredients in the development of yogurt alternatives. Furthermore, this study demonstrates that dairy- and plant-based yogurts with a similar mouthfeel profiles may have different viscoelastic properties, which indicates that instrumental and sensory methods should not be considered substitutive but complementary methods when developing plant-based yogurts in a cost-effective and timely manner.

Functional Performance of Plant Proteins.

Increasingly, consumers are moving towards a more plant-based diet. However, some consumers are avoiding common plant proteins such as soy and gluten due to their potential allergenicity. Therefore, alternative protein sources are being explored as functional ingredients in foods, including pea, chickpea, and other legume proteins. The factors affecting the functional performance of plant proteins are outlined, including cultivars, genotypes, extraction and drying methods, protein level, and preparation methods (commercial versus laboratory). Current methods to characterize protein functionality are highlighted, including water and oil holding capacity, protein solubility, emulsifying, foaming, and gelling properties. We propose a series of analytical tests to better predict plant protein performance in foods. Representative applications are discussed to demonstrate how the functional attributes of plant proteins affect the physicochemical properties of plant-based foods. Increasing the protein content of plant protein ingredients enhances their water and oil holding capacity and foaming stability. Industrially produced plant proteins often have lower solubility and worse functionality than laboratory-produced ones due to protein denaturation and aggregation during commercial isolation processes. To better predict the functional performance of plant proteins, it would be useful to use computer modeling approaches, such as quantitative structural activity relationships (QSAR).

A review of the flavor profile of metal salts: understanding the complexity of metallic sensation.

The oral sensation of metallic is a complex experience. Much of our current understanding of metallic sensation is from the investigation of metal salts, which elicit diverse sensations, including taste, smell, and chemesthetic sensations, and therefore meet the definition of a flavor rather than a taste. Due to the involvement of multiple chemosensory systems, it can be challenging to define and characterize metallic sensation. Here, we provide a comprehensive review of the psychophysical studies quantifying and characterizing metallic sensation, focusing on metal salts. We examine the factors that impact perception, including anion complex, concentration, nasal occlusion, and pH. In addition, we summarize the receptors thought to be involved in the perception of metallic sensation (i.e., TRPV1, T1R3, TRPA1, and T2R7) either as a result of in vitro assays or from studies in knock-out mice. By enhancing our scientific understanding of metallic sensation and its transduction pathways, it has the potential to improve food and pharmaceuticals, help identify suppression or masking strategies, and improve the ability to characterize individual differences in metallic sensation. It also has the potential to translate to clinical populations by addressing the disparities in knowledge and treatment options for individuals suffering from metallic taste disorder (i.e., phantom taste or "metal mouth"). Future psychophysical studies investigating the sensory perception of metal salts should include a range of compounds and diverse food matrices, coupled with modern sensory methods, which will help to provide a more comprehensive understanding of metallic sensation.

Plant-Based Cheeses: A Systematic Review of Sensory Evaluation Studies and Strategies to Increase Consumer Acceptance.

Animal protein provides unique sensory and textural properties to foods that are not easily replicated when replaced with plant-based alternatives. Food scientists and researchers are currently developing innovative approaches to improve their physical and sensory characteristics in plant-based analogs. In terms of plant-based cheese substitutes (PBCS), soy is the most commonly used plant-based protein but is associated with undesirable sensory attributes (i.e., beany and gritty). In order to determine if the approaches result in a significant improvement in sensory quality and liking, sensory evaluation is employed. The aim of this review is to summarize the original literature (n = 12) relating to 100% PBCS which utilizes sensory evaluation methods. Overall, a major theme identified in this review is the innovative strategies used to increase acceptance of PBCS, whether products are aimed at improving existing non-dairy-based cheese formulations or to more closely mimic a conventional dairy-based cheese product. Studies demonstrate processing and fermentation of soybeans and blending of non-dairy milks are potential ways to improve consumer liking of PBCS. A secondary focus is to discuss the current sensory methodology carried out in the reviewed literature. Future studies should consider using more specific measures of flavor and mouthfeel, integrate evaluation of consumer liking with instrumental textural methods, and use a larger more diverse group of consumers. The outcome of this review is to highlight the importance of integrating sensory science in order to help facilitate the improvement of the sensory and quality attributes of PBCS and streamline product development.

Methods for Testing the Quality Attributes of Plant-Based Foods: Meat- and Processed-Meat Analogs.

The modern food system is seeing a change in consumption patterns provoked by several drivers-including ethical, health, and environmental concerns-that are increasing the sales of meat analog foods. This change is accompanied by increased research and development activities in the area of plant-based meats. The aim of the present review is to describe methods that are being employed by scientists to analyze and characterize the properties of meat alternatives and to propose standardized methods that could be utilized in the future. In particular, methods to determine the proximate composition, microstructure, appearance, textural properties, water-holding properties, cooking resilience, and sensory attributes, of plant-based meat are given. The principles behind these methods are presented, their utility is critically assessed, and practical examples will be discussed. This article will help to guide further studies and to choose appropriate methods to assess raw materials, processes, products, and consumption behavior of meat analogs.