Maternal serum amino acids and hydroxylated sphingomyelins at pregnancy are associated with anxiety symptoms during pregnancy and throughout the first year after delivery.

BACKGROUND: Studies suggest an interplay between maternal metabolome and mental health. OBJECTIVE: We investigated the association of maternal serum metabolome at pregnancy with anxiety scores during pregnancy and throughout the first year postpartum. METHODS: A prospective cohort of Brazilian women collected 119 serum metabolome at pregnancy (28-38 weeks) and anxiety scores measured by the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) at pregnancy (n = 118), 1 (n = 83), 6 (n = 68), and 12 (n = 57) months postpartum. Targeted metabolomics quantified metabolites belonging to amino acids (AA), biogenic amines/amino acid-related compounds, acylcarnitines, lysophosphatidylcholines, diacyl phosphatidylcholines, alkyl:acyl phosphatidylcholines, non-hydroxylated and hydroxylated sphingomyelins [SM(OH)], and hexoses classes. Linear mixed-effect models were used to evaluate the association of metabolites and STAI scores. Hierarchical clustering and principal component analyses were employed to identify clusters and metabolites, which drove their main differences. Multiple comparison-adjusted p-values (q-value) ≤ 0.05 were considered significant. RESULTS: AA (ß = -1.44) and SM(OH) (ß = -1.49) classes showed an association with STAI scores trajectory (q-value = 0.047). Two clusters were identified based on these classes. Women in cluster 2 had decreased AA and SM(OH) concentrations and higher STAI scores (worse symptoms) trajectory (ß = 2.28; p-value = 0.041). Isoleucine, leucine, valine, SM(OH) 22:1, 22:2, and 24:1 drove the main differences between the clusters. LIMITATIONS: The target semiquantitative metabolome analysis and small sample size limited our conclusions. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that AA and SM(OH) during pregnancy play a role in anxiety symptoms throughout the first year postpartum.

Serum Zinc Concentrations by Inflammation Status, Time of Day, and Fasting Status for Estimating Zinc Deficiency in 6-59-Mo-Old Children: Results from the Brazilian National Survey on Child Nutrition (ENANI-2019).

BACKGROUND: Serum zinc concentration (SZC) is considered the best biomarker of zinc status in population-level evaluations. However, zinc deficiency (ZD) estimations can be biased if they do not consider blood collection timing, inflammation, and fasting status. OBJECTIVES: The objectives of this study were to determine SZC without and with adjustment for inflammation, according to blood collection timing and fasting status, estimate ZD prevalence, and evaluate the associated factors with ZD in a representative sample of Brazilian children aged <5 y. METHODS: Population-based study with 7597 children aged 6-59 mo surveyed by the Brazilian National Survey on Child Nutrition. SZC was adjusted for inflammation using the Biomarkers Reflecting Inflammation and Nutritional Determinants of Anemia regression correction approach, with high-sensitive C-reactive protein, assessed according to blood collection timing (morning/afternoon) and fasting status (<8 and ≥8 h). SZC <65 µg/dL (morning collection) or SZC <57 µg/dL (afternoon collection) were classified as ZD. The analysis between associated factors and ZD used the adjusted prevalence ratio (PR). RESULTS: After adjusting for inflammation, SZC was higher in all percentiles and varied according to collection timing and fasting status. Children who had blood collected in the morning without fasting or in the afternoon had lower SZC than those assessed in the morning with fasting. The differences in adjusted SZC according to the timing of collection and fasting status were greater in the higher percentiles of the distribution, with the greatest absolute difference observed when comparing the 95th percentile of morning fasting compared with nonfasting (20.3 µg/dL). The prevalence of ZD estimated without and with adjusting SZC for inflammation was 17.8% and 13.8%, respectively. The occurrence of diarrhea, fever, or respiratory symptoms in the 15 d before blood collection was associated with a higher prevalence of ZD (PR: 1.42; 95% confidence interval: 1.04, 1.94). CONCLUSIONS: Adjusting SZC for inflammation and considering fasting status is important to avoid overestimating the prevalence of ZD.

Prevalence and predictors of vitamin D insufficiency in Brazilian children under 5 years of age: Brazilian National Survey on Child Nutrition (ENANI-2019).

To analyse the association of socio-demographic and health factors with vitamin D insufficiency and 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D) concentration in Brazilian children aged 6-59 months. Data from 8145 children from the Brazilian National Survey on Child Nutrition (ENANI-2019) were analysed. The serum concentration of 25(OHD)D was measured using a chemiluminescent immunoassay. The prevalence of vitamin D insufficiency (25(OH)D < 50 nmol/l) and 95 % CI was calculated. Logistic and linear regression models were used to identify the variables associated with vitamin D insufficiency and serum 25(OH)D concentrations, respectively. The mean 25(OH)D concentration was 98·6 ± 36·0 nmol/l, and 4·3 % of the children presented vitamin D insufficiency. Children aged 6-23 months (OR = 2·23; 95 % CI 1·52, 3·26); belonging to Southeast (OR = 5·55; 95 % CI 2·34, 13·17) and South (OR = 4·57; 95 % CI 1·77, 11·84) regions; the second tertile of the National Wealth Score (OR = 2·14; 95 % CI 1·16, 3·91) and winter (OR = 5·82; 95 % CI 2·67, 12·71) and spring (OR = 4·84; 95 % CI 2·17, 10·80) seasons of blood collection were associated with a higher chance of vitamin D insufficiency. Female sex (ß = -5·66, 95 % CI - 7·81, -3·51), urban location (ß = -14·19, 95 % CI -21·0, -7·22) and no vitamin D supplement use (ß = -6·01, 95 % CI -9·64, -2·39) were inversely associated with serum 25(OH)D concentration. The age of children and the Brazilian geographical region of household location were the main predictors of vitamin D insufficiency. In Brazil, vitamin D insufficiency among children aged 6-59 months is low and is not a relevant public health problem.

Minimum dietary diversity and consumption of ultra-processed foods among Brazilian children 6-23 months of age.

The study aimed to estimate the prevalence of minimum dietary diversity (MDD) and consumption of ultra-processed foods in children 6-23 months of age according to sociodemographic variables. Three indicators of complementary feeding of 4,354 children from the Brazilian National Survey on Child Nutrition (ENANI-2019) were built based on a questionnaire about food consumption on the day before the interview: MDD, consumption of ultra-processed foods, and MDD without the consumption of ultra-processed foods. The prevalence and 95%CI were calculated, stratified by macroregion; race/skin color, education and work status of the mother or caregiver; enrollment in the Brazilian Income Transfer Program; household food security; sanitation; and child enrollment in daycare/school. The overall prevalence of MDD was 63.4%, with lower prevalences among children who lived in the North Region (54.8%), whose mothers or caregivers had 0-7 years of education (50.6%), and lived under moderate or severe food insecurity (52.6%). Ultra-processed foods were consumed by 80.5% of the children, with the highest prevalence in the North Region (84.5%). The prevalence of MDD without ultra-processed foods was 8.4% and less prevalent among children with black mothers or caregivers (3.6%) and among those whose mother or caregiver had 8-10 years of education (3.6%). The most frequently consumed food groups from the MDD indicator were grains, roots and tubers (90.2%), dairy products (81%) and those from ultra-processed food were sweet or salty cookies/crackers (51.3%) and instant flours (41.4%). The ubiquitous presence of ultra-processed foods in the diets of Brazilian children and the low frequency of diversified foods, especially among the most vulnerable populations, indicate the need to strengthen policies and programs to ensure adequate and healthy infant nutrition.

Nutrition transition in Brazilian children under 5 years old from 2006 to 2019.

This manuscript aims to report the nutrition transition in Brazilian children under 5 years old from 2006 to 2019. Microdata from the Brazilian National Survey on Demography and Health of Women and Children (PNDS 2006) and the Brazilian National Survey on Child Nutrition (ENANI-2019) were analyzed. The indicators considered were: micronutrient status (anemia and vitamin A deficiency), anthropometric status (stunting and excessive weight), and breastfeeding practice (exclusive breastfeeding among children < 6 months and continued breastfeeding among children 12-23 months). We also analyzed minimum dietary diversity (MDD), consumption of ultra-processed foods, consumption of meat or eggs, and not consuming fruits or vegetables in children 6-59 months of age only for ENANI-2019. Equiplot charts were generated according to geographic region, maternal schooling level, and maternal race/skin color. From 2006 to 2019, the prevalence rates of anemia and vitamin A deficiency decreased from 20.5% to 10.1% and 17.2% to 6%, respectively. The prevalence of stunting remained at 7%, and excessive weight rates increased from 6% to 10.1%. The prevalence of exclusive breastfeeding among children < 6 months increased from 38.6% to 45.8%, and of continued breastfeeding among children 12-23 months from 34.6% to 43.6%. In 2019, 61.5% of children achieved the MDD, 88.8% consumed ultra-processed foods, 83.1% consumed meat or egg, and 25.7% did not consume fruits or vegetables the day before the survey. Trends of decreased micronutrient deficiencies, increased breastfeeding, and excessive weight rates, as well as reductions in disparities related to geographic region, maternal schooling level, and maternal race/skin color, were observed for most of the indicators.

Cross-breastfeeding and milk donation in Brazil.

The objective of this study was to describe the frequency of cross-breastfeeding, human milk donation to human milk banks and reception of human milk from human milk banks, and to investigate the intersection between cross-breastfeeding and breast milk donation practices. This study used data from the national household-based survey Brazilian National Survey on Child Nutrition (ENANI-2019), which collected information from 14,558 children < 5 years old between February 2019 and March 2020. The present study included data from 5,831 biological mothers who reported having breastfed their child < 2 years old at least once and replied questions about cross-breastfeeding, donation and recaption of human milk to human milk banks. Prevalence and 95% confidence intervals (95%CI) were estimated for each stratifier, considering the study complex sample design. Among mothers of children < 2 years old who breastfed their child at least once, 21.1% practiced cross-breastfeeding; breastfeeding another child was more frequent (15.6%) than allowing a child to be breastfed by another woman (11.2%). Among this population, 4.8% of women donated human milk to a human milk bank, and 3.6% reported that their children had received donated human milk. The donation of human milk is a practice recommended by the Brazilian Ministry of Health and has the potential to save thousands of newborns throughout Brazil. In contrast, cross-breastfeeding is contraindicated due to the potential risk of transmitting HIV. There is a need for a broad debate on these practices in Brazil and worldwide.

Malnutrition in mother-child dyads in the Brazilian National Survey on Child Nutrition (ENANI-2019).

Malnutrition affects billions of individuals worldwide and represents a global health challenge. This study aimed to determine the prevalence of malnutrition (undernutrition or overweight) among mother-child dyads in children under 5 years old in Brazil in 2019 and to estimate changes in this prevalence from 2006 to 2019. Individual-level data from the Brazilian National Survey on Child Nutrition (ENANI-2019) and the Brazilian National Survey of Demography and Health of Women and Children carried out in 2006 (PNDS 2006) were analyzed. Malnutrition outcomes in mother-child dyads included overweight mother and child, undernourished mother and child, and the double burden of malnutrition, i.e., overweight mother and child having any form of undernourishment (stunting, wasting, or underweight). Prevalence and 95% confidence intervals (95%CI) were estimated. Most women (58.2%) and 9.7% of the children were overweight, 6.9% were stunted, and 3.1% of mothers and 2.9% of the children were underweight. The prevalence of overweight in the mother-child dyad was 7.8% and was statistically higher in Southern Brazil (9.7%; 95%CI: 7.5; 11.9) than in the Central-West (5.4%; 95%CI: 4.3; 6.6). The prevalence of overweight mother and stunted child was 3.5%, with statistically significant difference between the extremes of the mother's education [0-7 vs. ≥ 12 years, 4.8% (95%CI: 3.2; 6.5) and 2.1%, (95%CI: 1.2; 3.0), respectively]. Overweight in the dyad increased from 5.2% to 7.8%, and the double burden of malnutrition increased from 2.7% to 5.2% since 2006. Malnutrition in Brazilian mother-child dyads seems to be a growing problem, and dyads with lower formal education, higher maternal age, and from the South Region of Brazil were more vulnerable.

Factors associated with anemia and vitamin A deficiency in Brazilian children under 5 years old: Brazilian National Survey on Child Nutrition (ENANI-2019).

Factors associated with anemia and vitamin A deficiency were investigated in 7,716 children 6-59 months of age studied in the Brazilian National Survey on Child Nutrition (ENANI-2019). We adopted a hierarchical approach based on a United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) theoretical model with three levels, stratifying by age (6-23; 24-59 months). Prevalence ratio (PR) and 95% confidence interval (95%CI) were estimated. Enabling determinants: a higher prevalence of anemia was observed in children 6-23 months whose mothers had ≤ 7 years of schooling (PR = 1.92; 95%CI: 1.10; 3.34), < 20 years old (PR = 2.47; 95%CI: 1.34; 4.56) or 20-30 years old (PR = 1.95; 95%CI: 1.11; 3.44), mixed-race (PR = 1.57; 95%CI: 1.06; 2.23); and in children 24-59 months in the North Region (PR = 3.11; 95%CI: 1.58; 6.13). A higher prevalence for vitamin A deficiency was observed in children 6-23 months from Central-West (PR = 2.32; 95%CI: 1.33; 4.05), and in children 24-59 months living in the North (PR = 1.96; 95%CI: 1.16; 3.30), South (PR = 3.07; 95%CI: 1.89; 5.01), and Central-West (PR = 1.91; 95%CI: 1.12; 3.25) and whose mothers were 20-34 years (PR = 1.62; 95%CI: 1.11; 2.35). Underlying determinants: the presence of more than one child < 5 years old in the household was associated with a higher prevalence of anemia (PR = 1.61; 95%CI: 1.15; 2.25) and vitamin A deficiency (PR = 1.82; 95%CI: 1.09; 3.05) in children 6-23 months. Immediate determinants: consumption of 1-2 groups of ultra-processed foods in children 24-59 months (PR = 0.44; 95%CI: 0.25; 0.81) and lack of breastfeeding in the day before in children 6-23 months (PR = 0.56; 95%CI: 0.36; 0.95) were associated with lower prevalence of anemia and vitamin A deficiency. Public policies focused on geographically and socially vulnerable groups are needed to promote equity.

The National Wealth Score in the Brazilian National Survey on Child Nutrition (ENANI-2019).

The National Wealth Score (IEN) is a synthetic household index that assesses socioeconomic conditions. This study aims to present the methods used to update the IEN using data from the Brazilian National Survey on Child Nutrition (ENANI-2019). The following items were included: the education level of the mother or caregiver of the child; the number of bedrooms and bathrooms, TV sets, and cars in the household; and the presence of a radio, refrigerator or freezer, washing machine, microwave oven, telephone line, computers, air conditioner, media player devices, cable or satellite TV, cell phone ownership and type of service, cell phone internet, and internet at the household. Principal component analysis (PCA) was used to estimate the IEN with and without incorporating the complex sampling design (CSD). Thus, the IEN validation considered proxy indicators of socioeconomic status and living conditions. The first component of the PCA explained 31% and 71% of the variation with and without incorporating the CSD, respectively. The coefficients of variation of the IEN were 53.4% and 2.6% with and without incorporating the CSD, respectively. The mean IEN score was lower in households without access to a sewage system, those that received benefits from Brazilian Income Transfer Program, those with some degree of food insecurity, and those with stunted children. Adding ENANI-2019 items to the calculation of IEN to capture technological advances resulted in a better fit of the model. Incorporating the CSD increased PCA performance and the IEN precision. The new IEN has an adequate performance in determining the socioeconomic status of households with children aged under five years.

Characterization of micronutrient supplements use by Brazilian children 6-59 months of age: Brazilian National Survey on Child Nutrition (ENANI-2019).

This study aimed to characterize micronutrient supplements use among Brazilian children 6-59 months of age included in the Brazilian National Survey on Child Nutrition (ENANI-2019; n = 12,598). Micronutrient supplements use at the time of the interview and the 6 months prior to it was evaluated using a structured questionnaire. The following indicators were included: micronutrient supplement use; supplements containing a single micronutrient; supplements of the Brazilian National Iron Supplementation Program (PNSF); multivitamin supplements with or without minerals; multivitamin supplements with minerals; multivitamin supplements without minerals. The estimates and their respective 95% confidence intervals (95%CI) were calculated for Brazil and according to macroregion, educational level of the mother or caregiver, and type of health care service used, considering the sampling plan, weights, and calibration. In Brazil, the prevalence of micronutrient supplements use was 54.2% (95%CI: 50.5; 57.8), with the highest prevalence in the North Region (80.2%; 95%CI: 74.9; 85.6) and among children 6-23 months of age (69.5%; 95%CI: 65.7; 73.3). The prevalence of the use of supplements containing exclusively iron and exclusively vitamin A in Brazil was 14.6% (95%CI: 13.1; 16.1) and 23.3% (95%CI: 19.4; 27.1), respectively. The prevalence of the use of multivitamin with or without minerals in Brazilian children 6-59 months of age was 24.3% (95%CI: 21.4; 27.2). These results may help to understand the practice of supplements use among Brazilian children and support the proposal of national public policies for the prevention and control of micronutrient deficiencies.

High Serum Folate Concentration, Vitamin B12 Deficiency, and Anthropometric Nutritional Status in Brazilian Children Aged 6-59 Months: Data from the Brazilian National Survey of Child Nutrition.

BACKGROUND: Vitamin B12 and folate are key nutrients that help children reach their full potential in growth and development; however, little is known about the status of these vitamins in Brazilian children. OBJECTIVES: To describe the serum concentrations of vitamin B12 and folate, to investigate the association between high folate concentration (HFC) and vitamin B12 deficiency, and to evaluate the association between vitamin B12 and stunting/underweight in Brazilian children aged 6-59 mo. METHODS: Data from 7417 children aged 6-59 mo collected during the Brazilian National Survey on Child Nutrition were used. Serum concentrations of vitamin B12 of <150 pmol/L and folate of <10 nmol/L were classified as deficient, and folate concentrations of >45.3 nmol/L were classified as HFC. Children with length/height-for-age z-score of less than -2 were considered stunted, and those with weight-for-age z-score of less than -2 were underweight. Logistic regression models were performed. RESULTS: In Brazil, 14.2% (95% CI: 12.2, 16.1) of children aged 6-59 mo had vitamin B12 deficiency, 1.1% (95% CI: 0.5, 1.6) had folate deficiency, and 36.9% (95% CI: 33.4, 40.3) had HFC. Vitamin B12 deficiency was higher in children from the northern region of Brazil (28.5%), between 6 and 24 mo (25.3%), whose mothers had lower formal education (0-7 y; 18.7%). Children with HFC had 62% lower odds (OR: 0.38; 95% CI: 0.27, 0.54) of vitamin B12 deficiency than those with normal/deficient folate. Children with vitamin B12 deficiency and normal/deficient folate had higher odds of stunting (OR: 1.58; 95% CI: 1.02, 2.43) than children without vitamin B12 deficiency and normal/deficient folate. CONCLUSIONS: Vitamin B12 deficiency is a public health problem among Brazilian children aged <2 y with vulnerable socioeconomic status. HFC was inversely associated with vitamin B12 deficiency, and lower odds of stunting were observed in children with HFC and vitamin B12 deficiency than in those with vitamin B12 deficiency and normal/deficient folate.

Association of development quotient with nutritional status of vitamins B6, B12, and folate in 6-59-month-old children: Results from the Brazilian National Survey on Child Nutrition (ENANI-2019).

BACKGROUND: Vitamins B6, B12, and folate are essential for the formation and maintenance of the human brain, but studies evaluating these vitamins with early childhood development (ECD) in children under 5 y are limited and controversial. OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the association between vitamins B6, B12, and folate concentrations/status and ECD. METHODS: Data regarding 6520 children aged 6-59 mo from the ENANI-2019 (the Brazilian National Survey on Child Nutrition) were analyzed. ECD was assessed using the Survey of Well-being of Young Children's milestones questionnaire. Vitamin B6 concentration (nmol/L) was classified according to the tertile of the distribution and with the cutoff <20 nmol/L. Folate concentrations >45.3 nmol/L were classified as high, and vitamin B12 <150 pmol/L was deficient. The graded response model was used to estimate developmental age, and the developmental quotient (DQ) was calculated as the developmental age divided by chronological age. Multiple linear regression models were adjusted for confounders. RESULTS: The DQ mean (95% confidence interval) for Brazilian children was 0.99 (0.97-1.01). Children aged 6-23 mo [1.13 (1.10-1.16)] had a higher DQ mean than those aged 24-35 [0.99 (0.95-1.03)] and 36-59 mo [0.89 (0.86-0.92)]. Child age was inversely associated with DQ (ß = -0.007; P < 0.001). An interaction between child age and vitamin B12 deficiency in the DQ (ß = -0.005; P < 0.001) indicated that, in children aged 36-59 mo, the DQ was markedly lower in children with vitamin B12 deficiency than in those without vitamin B12 deficiency. Vitamin B6 concentrations were directly associated with the DQ (ß = 0.0004; P = 0.031) among children aged 24-59 mo in the adjusted model. No association was observed between folate status and DQ. CONCLUSIONS: In Brazil, the DQ is lower among older children and those with vitamin B12 deficiency. Vitamin B6 status was directly associated with the DQ in children aged 24-59 mo.

Prepregnancy Body Mass Index and Lipoprotein Fractions are Associated with Changes in Women's Serum Metabolome from Late Pregnancy to the First Months of Postpartum.

BACKGROUND: Pregnancy and postpartum are periods of intense changes in women's metabolism. The knowledge of the metabolites and maternal factors underlying these changes is limited. OBJECTIVES: We aimed to investigate the maternal factors that could influence serum metabolome changes from late pregnancy to the first months of postpartum. METHODS: Sixty-eight healthy women from a Brazilian prospective cohort were included. Maternal blood and general characteristics were collected during pregnancy (28-35 wk) and postpartum (27-45 d). A targeted metabolomics approach was applied to quantify 132 serum metabolites, including amino acids, biogenic amines, acylcarnitines, lysophosphatidylcholines (LPC), diacyl phosphatidylcholines (PC), alkyl:acyl phosphatidylcholines (PC-O), sphingomyelins with (SM) and without hydroxylation [SM(OH)], and hexoses. Metabolome changes from pregnancy to postpartum were measured as log2 fold change (log2FC), and simple linear regressions were employed to evaluate associations between maternal variables and metabolite log2FC. Multiple comparison-adjusted P values of < 0.05 were considered significant. RESULTS: Of 132 metabolites quantified in serum, 90 changed from pregnancy to postpartum. Most metabolites belonging to PC and PC-O classes decreased, whereas most LPC, acylcarnitines, biogenic amines, and a few amino acids increased in postpartum. Maternal prepregnancy body mass index (ppBMI) showed positive associations with leucine and proline. A clear opposite change pattern was observed for most metabolites across ppBMI categories. Few phosphatidylcholines were decreased in women with normal ppBMI, while an increase was observed in women with obesity. Similarly, women with high postpartum levels of total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, and non-HDL cholesterol showed increased sphingomyelins, whereas a decrease was observed for women with lower levels of those lipoproteins. CONCLUSIONS: The results revealed several maternal serum metabolomic changes from pregnancy to postpartum, and the maternal ppBMI and plasma lipoproteins were associated with these changes. We highlight the importance of the nutritional care of women prepregnancy to improve their metabolic risk profile.

Factors associated with anemia and vitamin A deficiency in Brazilian children under 5 years old: Brazilian National Survey on Child Nutrition (ENANI-2019) / Fatores associados à anemia e deficiência de vitamina A em crianças brasileiras menores de cinco anos: Estudo Nacional de Alimentação e Nutrição Infantil (ENANI-2019) / Factores asociados con la anemia y la deficiencia de vitamina A en niños brasileños menores de cinco años: Estudio Nacional de Alimentación y Nutrición Infantil (ENANI-2019)

Abstract: Factors associated with anemia and vitamin A deficiency were investigated in 7,716 children 6-59 months of age studied in the Brazilian National Survey on Child Nutrition (ENANI-2019). We adopted a hierarchical approach based on a United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) theoretical model with three levels, stratifying by age (6-23; 24-59 months). Prevalence ratio (PR) and 95% confidence interval (95%CI) were estimated. Enabling determinants: a higher prevalence of anemia was observed in children 6-23 months whose mothers had ≤ 7 years of schooling (PR = 1.92; 95%CI: 1.10; 3.34), < 20 years old (PR = 2.47; 95%CI: 1.34; 4.56) or 20-30 years old (PR = 1.95; 95%CI: 1.11; 3.44), mixed-race (PR = 1.57; 95%CI: 1.06; 2.23); and in children 24-59 months in the North Region (PR = 3.11; 95%CI: 1.58; 6.13). A higher prevalence for vitamin A deficiency was observed in children 6-23 months from Central-West (PR = 2.32; 95%CI: 1.33; 4.05), and in children 24-59 months living in the North (PR = 1.96; 95%CI: 1.16; 3.30), South (PR = 3.07; 95%CI: 1.89; 5.01), and Central-West (PR = 1.91; 95%CI: 1.12; 3.25) and whose mothers were 20-34 years (PR = 1.62; 95%CI: 1.11; 2.35). Underlying determinants: the presence of more than one child < 5 years old in the household was associated with a higher prevalence of anemia (PR = 1.61; 95%CI: 1.15; 2.25) and vitamin A deficiency (PR = 1.82; 95%CI: 1.09; 3.05) in children 6-23 months. Immediate determinants: consumption of 1-2 groups of ultra-processed foods in children 24-59 months (PR = 0.44; 95%CI: 0.25; 0.81) and lack of breastfeeding in the day before in children 6-23 months (PR = 0.56; 95%CI: 0.36; 0.95) were associated with lower prevalence of anemia and vitamin A deficiency. Public policies focused on geographically and socially vulnerable groups are needed to promote equity.

Resumo: Fatores associados a anemia e deficiência de vitamina A foram investigados em 7.716 crianças de 6-59 meses de idade parte da Estudo Nacional de Alimentação e Nutrição Infantil (ENANI-2019). Adotamos uma abordagem hierárquica baseada em um modelo teórico do Fundo das Nações Unidas para a Infância (UNICEF) com três níveis estratificados por idade (6-23; 24-59 meses). Foram estimadas razões de prevalência (RP) e intervalos de 95% de confiança (IC95%). Determinantes habilitadores: observamos maior prevalência de anemia em crianças de 6-23 meses de idade cujas mães tinham ≤ 7 anos de escolaridade (RP = 1,92; IC95%: 1,10; 3,34), < 20 anos de idade (RP = 2,47; IC95%: 1,34; 4,56) ou 20-30 anos de idade (RP = 1,95; IC95%: 1,11; 3,44), cor parda (RP = 1,57; IC95%: 1,06; 2,23); e em crianças de 24-59 meses de idade na Região Norte (RP = 3,11; IC95%: 1,58; 6,13). Encontramos maior prevalência de deficiência de vitamina A em crianças de 6-23 meses de idade no Centro-oeste (RP = 2,32; IC95%: 1,33; 4,05) e em crianças de 24-59 meses de idade residentes nas regiões Norte (RP = 1,96; IC95%: 1,16; 3,30), Sul (RP = 3,07; IC95%: 1,89; 5,01) e Centro-oeste (RP = 1,91; IC95%: 1,12; 3,25) cujas mães tinham entre 20-34 anos de idade (RP = 1,62; IC95%: 1,11; 2,35). Determinantes subjacentes: a presença de mais de uma criança < 5 anos de idade no domicílio se associou a maior prevalência de anemia (RP = 1,61; IC95%: 1,15; 2,25) e deficiência de vitamina A (RP = 1,82; IC95%: 1,09; 3,05) em crianças de 6-23 meses de idade. Determinantes imediatos: o consumo de 1-2 grupos de alimentos ultraprocessados em crianças de 24-59 meses de idade (RP = 0,44; IC95%: 0,25; 0,81) e o não aleitamento materno no dia anterior em crianças de 6-23 meses de idade (RP = 0,56; IC95%: 0,36; 0,95) foram associados com a menor prevalência de anemia e deficiência de vitamina A. Políticas públicas focadas em grupos geográfica e socialmente vulneráveis são necessárias para promover equidade.

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Cross-breastfeeding and milk donation in Brazil / Amamentação cruzada e a doação de leite no Brasil / Lactancia materna cruzada y donación de leche en Brasil

Abstract: The objective of this study was to describe the frequency of cross-breastfeeding, human milk donation to human milk banks and reception of human milk from human milk banks, and to investigate the intersection between cross-breastfeeding and breast milk donation practices. This study used data from the national household-based survey Brazilian National Survey on Child Nutrition (ENANI-2019), which collected information from 14,558 children < 5 years old between February 2019 and March 2020. The present study included data from 5,831 biological mothers who reported having breastfed their child < 2 years old at least once and replied questions about cross-breastfeeding, donation and recaption of human milk to human milk banks. Prevalence and 95% confidence intervals (95%CI) were estimated for each stratifier, considering the study complex sample design. Among mothers of children < 2 years old who breastfed their child at least once, 21.1% practiced cross-breastfeeding; breastfeeding another child was more frequent (15.6%) than allowing a child to be breastfed by another woman (11.2%). Among this population, 4.8% of women donated human milk to a human milk bank, and 3.6% reported that their children had received donated human milk. The donation of human milk is a practice recommended by the Brazilian Ministry of Health and has the potential to save thousands of newborns throughout Brazil. In contrast, cross-breastfeeding is contraindicated due to the potential risk of transmitting HIV. There is a need for a broad debate on these practices in Brazil and worldwide.

Resumo: O objetivo deste estudo foi descrever a frequência de amamentação cruzada, doação de leite humano para bancos de leite humano e recepção de leite humano dos bancos de leite humano, além de investigar a interseção entre práticas de amamentação cruzada e a doação de leite materno. Este estudo utilizou dados do Estudo Nacional de Alimentação e Nutrição Infantil (ENANI-2019), uma pesquisa populacional de base domiciliar que coletou informações de 14.558 crianças < 5 anos entre fevereiro de 2019 e março de 2020. Dados de 5.831 mães biológicas que relataram ter amamentado seu filho com menos de dois anos de idade pelo menos uma vez e que responderam às perguntas sobre amamentação cruzada, doação e recepção de leite humano nos bancos de leite humano foram inclusos. Foram estimados as prevalências e os intervalos de 95% de confiança (IC95%) para cada estratificador, considerando o desenho amostral complexo do estudo. Entre as mães de crianças com menos de dois anos que amamentaram o filho pelo menos uma vez, 21,1% praticaram a amamentação cruzada. Amamentar outra criança foi mais frequente (15,6%) do que permitir que a sua criança fosse amamentada por outra mulher (11,2%). Entre essas mulheres, 4,8% doaram leite humano para um bancos de leite humano e 3,6% relataram que seus filhos receberam leite humano doado. A doação de leite humano é uma prática recomendada pelo Ministério da Saúde e tem o potencial de salvar milhares de recém-nascidos em todo o Brasil. Em contraste, a amamentação cruzada é contraindicada devido ao risco potencial de transmissão do HIV. Há necessidade de um amplo debate sobre essas práticas no Brasil e no mundo.

Resumen: El objetivo de este estudio fue describir la frecuencia de lactancia materna cruzada, la donación de leche humana a los bancos de leche humana y la recepción de leche humana de los bancos de leche humana, además de investigar la intersección entre las prácticas de lactancia materna cruzada y la donación de leche materna. Este estudio utilizó datos del Estudio Nacional de Alimentación y Nutrición Infantil (ENANI-2019), una encuesta nacional de hogares que recopiló información de 14.558 niños < 5 años, en el periodo entre febrero de 2019 y marzo de 2020. Se incluyeron datos de 5.831 madres biológicas que reportaron haber amamantado a su hijo < 2 años, al menos una vez, y que respondieron preguntas sobre lactancia cruzada, donación y recepción de leche humana en los bancos de leche humana. Se estimaron prevalencias y los intervalos de 95% de confianza (IC95%) para cada estrato, considerando el diseño muestral complejo del estudio. Entre las madres de niños < 2 años que amamantaron a su hijo al menos una vez, el 21,1% practicaba la lactancia cruzada. Amamantar a otro hijo fue más frecuente (15,6%) que dejar que su hijo sea amamantado por otra mujer (11,2%). Entre estas mujeres, el 4,8% donó leche humana a un bancos de leche humana y el 3,6% informó que sus hijos recibieron leche humana donada. La donación de leche humana es una práctica recomendada por el Ministerio de Salud brasileño y puede salvar muchos recién nacidos en todo Brasil. Por el contrario, la lactancia cruzada está contraindicada debido al potencial riesgo de transmisión del VIH. Es necesario un amplio debate sobre estas prácticas en Brasil y en el mundo.

Malnutrition in mother-child dyads in the Brazilian National Survey on Child Nutrition (ENANI-2019) / Má nutrição em díades mãe-filho no Estudo Nacional de Alimentação e Nutrição Infantil (ENANI-2019) / Malnutrición en díadas madre-hijo en el Estudio Nacional de Alimentación y Nutrición Infantil (ENANI-2019)

Abstract: Malnutrition affects billions of individuals worldwide and represents a global health challenge. This study aimed to determine the prevalence of malnutrition (undernutrition or overweight) among mother-child dyads in children under 5 years old in Brazil in 2019 and to estimate changes in this prevalence from 2006 to 2019. Individual-level data from the Brazilian National Survey on Child Nutrition (ENANI-2019) and the Brazilian National Survey of Demography and Health of Women and Children carried out in 2006 (PNDS 2006) were analyzed. Malnutrition outcomes in mother-child dyads included overweight mother and child, undernourished mother and child, and the double burden of malnutrition, i.e., overweight mother and child having any form of undernourishment (stunting, wasting, or underweight). Prevalence and 95% confidence intervals (95%CI) were estimated. Most women (58.2%) and 9.7% of the children were overweight, 6.9% were stunted, and 3.1% of mothers and 2.9% of the children were underweight. The prevalence of overweight in the mother-child dyad was 7.8% and was statistically higher in Southern Brazil (9.7%; 95%CI: 7.5; 11.9) than in the Central-West (5.4%; 95%CI: 4.3; 6.6). The prevalence of overweight mother and stunted child was 3.5%, with statistically significant difference between the extremes of the mother's education [0-7 vs. ≥ 12 years, 4.8% (95%CI: 3.2; 6.5) and 2.1%, (95%CI: 1.2; 3.0), respectively]. Overweight in the dyad increased from 5.2% to 7.8%, and the double burden of malnutrition increased from 2.7% to 5.2% since 2006. Malnutrition in Brazilian mother-child dyads seems to be a growing problem, and dyads with lower formal education, higher maternal age, and from the South Region of Brazil were more vulnerable.

Resumo: A má nutrição afeta bilhões de indivíduos em todo o mundo e representa um desafio de saúde global. Este estudo teve como objetivo determinar a prevalência de má nutrição (desnutrição ou excesso de peso) entre díades mãe-filho em crianças menores de cinco anos no Brasil em 2019 e estimar as mudanças nessa prevalência de 2006 a 2019. Foram analisados dados individuais do Estudo Nacional de Alimentação e Nutrição Infantil (ENANI-2019) e da Pesquisa Nacional de Demografia e Saúde da Criança e da Mulher realizada em 2006 (PNDS 2006). Os desfechos de má nutrição incluíram mãe e filho com excesso de peso, mãe e filho desnutridos e a dupla carga de má nutrição, ou seja, mãe com excesso de peso e filho com qualquer forma de desnutrição (défict de crescimento, magreza ou baixo peso). Foram estimadas a prevalência e os intervalos de 95% de confiança (IC95%). A maioria das mulheres (58,2%) e 9,7% das crianças estavam acima do peso, 6,9% apresentaram déficit de crescimento e 3,1% das mães e 2,9% das crianças estavam abaixo do peso. A prevalência de excesso de peso na díade mãe-filho foi de 7,8% e foi estatisticamente maior no Sul do Brasil (9,7%; IC95%: 7,5; 11,9) do que no Centro-oeste (5,4%; IC95%: 4,3; 6,6). A prevalência de mãe com sobrepeso e filho com déficit de crescimento foi de 3,5%, com uma diferença estatisticamente significante entre os extremos de escolaridade materna [(0-7 vs. ≥ 12 anos de estudo), 4,8% (IC95%: 3,2; 6,5) and 2,1% (IC95%: 1,2; 3,0), respectivamente]. O excesso de peso na díade aumentou de 5,2% para 7,8% e a dupla carga de má nutrição aumentou de 2,7% para 5,2% desde 2006. A má nutrição nas díades mãe-filho brasileiras parece ser um problema crescente, sendo as mais vulneráveis aquelas com menor escolaridade e maior idade materna e residentes na Região Sul do Brasil.

Resumen: La malnutrición afecta a muchas personas en todo el mundo y representa un desafío para la salud mundial. Este estudio tuvo como objetivo determinar la prevalencia de malnutrición (desnutrición o sobrepeso) entre díadas madre-hijo en niños menores de cinco años en Brasil en 2019 y estimar cambios en esta prevalencia de 2006 a 2019. Se analizaron datos individuales del Estudio Nacional de Alimentación y Nutrición Infantil (ENANI-2019) y de la Encuesta Nacional de Demografía y Salud del Niño y de la Mujer de 2006 (PNDS 2006). Los resultados de la malnutrición incluyeron a madre e hijo con sobrepeso, madre e hijo desnutridos y la doble carga de mala nutrición, es decir, madre con sobrepeso e hijo con cualquier forma de desnutrición (retardo en el crecimiento, emaciación o bajo peso). Se calcularon prevalencias y los intervalos de 95% de confianza (IC95%). La mayoría de las mujeres (58,2%) y el 9,7% de los niños tenían sobrepeso, el 6,9% de los niños presentaban retraso en el crecimiento, y el 3,1% de las madres y el 2,9% de los niños, bajo peso. La prevalencia de sobrepeso en la díada madre-hijo fue del 7,8%, estadísticamente mayor en el Sur de Brasil (9,7%; IC95%: 7,5; 11,9) que en el Centro-Oeste (5,4%; IC95%: 4,3; 6,6). La prevalencia de madres con sobrepeso y de niños con retraso del crecimiento fue del 3,5%, con una diferencia estadísticamente significativa entre los extremos de nivel educativo de la madre [(0-7 vs. ≥ 12 años de nivel educativo), 4,8% (IC95%: 3,2; 6,5) y 2,1% (IC95%: 1,2; 3,0), respectivamente]. El sobrepeso en la díada tuvo un aumento del 5,2% al 7,8%, y la doble carga de mala nutrición aumentó del 2,7% al 5,2% desde 2006. La malnutrición en la díada madre-hijo brasileña resulta ser un problema creciente, siendo las más vulnerables aquellas con menor escolaridad y mayor edad materna y residentes en la Región Sur de Brasil.

Minimum dietary diversity and consumption of ultra-processed foods among Brazilian children 6-23 months of age / Diversidade alimentar mínima e o consumo de alimentos ultraprocessados em crianças brasileiras de 6-23 meses / Diversidad alimentaria mínima y consumo de alimentos ultraprocesados en niños brasileños de 6-23 meses de edad

Abstract: The study aimed to estimate the prevalence of minimum dietary diversity (MDD) and consumption of ultra-processed foods in children 6-23 months of age according to sociodemographic variables. Three indicators of complementary feeding of 4,354 children from the Brazilian National Survey on Child Nutrition (ENANI-2019) were built based on a questionnaire about food consumption on the day before the interview: MDD, consumption of ultra-processed foods, and MDD without the consumption of ultra-processed foods. The prevalence and 95%CI were calculated, stratified by macroregion; race/skin color, education and work status of the mother or caregiver; enrollment in the Brazilian Income Transfer Program; household food security; sanitation; and child enrollment in daycare/school. The overall prevalence of MDD was 63.4%, with lower prevalences among children who lived in the North Region (54.8%), whose mothers or caregivers had 0-7 years of education (50.6%), and lived under moderate or severe food insecurity (52.6%). Ultra-processed foods were consumed by 80.5% of the children, with the highest prevalence in the North Region (84.5%). The prevalence of MDD without ultra-processed foods was 8.4% and less prevalent among children with black mothers or caregivers (3.6%) and among those whose mother or caregiver had 8-10 years of education (3.6%). The most frequently consumed food groups from the MDD indicator were grains, roots and tubers (90.2%), dairy products (81%) and those from ultra-processed food were sweet or salty cookies/crackers (51.3%) and instant flours (41.4%). The ubiquitous presence of ultra-processed foods in the diets of Brazilian children and the low frequency of diversified foods, especially among the most vulnerable populations, indicate the need to strengthen policies and programs to ensure adequate and healthy infant nutrition.

Resumo: O objetivo do estudo foi estimar a prevalência de diversidade alimentar mínima (DAM) e consumo de alimentos ultraprocessados em crianças de 6-23 meses de acordo com variáveis sociodemográficas. Três indicadores de alimentação complementar de 4.354 crianças do Estudo Nacional de Alimentação e Nutrição Infantil (ENANI-2019) foram construídos com base em um questionário sobre o consumo alimentar do dia anterior à entrevista: DAM, consumo de alimentos ultraprocessados e DAM sem consumo de alimentos ultraprocessados. Foram calculadas as prevalências e IC95%, estratificados por macrorregião; raça/cor da pele, escolaridade e situação profissional da mãe ou cuidador; inscrição no Programa Bolsa Família; segurança alimentar do domicílio; saneamento; e matrícula da criança em creche/escola. A prevalência geral de DAM foi de 63,4%, com menores prevalências entre crianças que residiam na Região Norte (54,8%), cujas maẽs ou cuidadores tinham de 0-7 anos de estudo (50,6%) e entre aquelas que viviam em situação de insegurança alimentar moderada ou grave (52,6%). Os alimentos ultraprocessados foram consumidos por 80,5% das crianças, com maior prevalência na Região Norte (84,5%). A prevalência de DAM sem alimentos ultraprocessados foi de 8,4%, sendo menos prevalente entre crianças cuja mãe ou cuidador era negro (3,6%) e entre aquelas cuja mãe ou cuidador tinha 8-10 anos de estudo (3,6%). Os grupos de alimentos do indicador DAM mais consumidos foram os cereais, raizes e tubérculos (90,2%), os derivados do leite (81%) e os dos alimentos ultraprocessados foram os biscoitos (51,3%) e os cereais instantâneos (41,4%). A onipresença de alimentos ultraprocessados na alimentação das crianças brasileiras e a baixa frequência de diversidade alimentar, especialmente entre as populações mais vulneráveis, indicam a necessidade de fortalecer políticas e programas para garantir uma nutrição infantil adequada e saudável.

Resumen: El objetivo del estudio fue estimar la prevalencia de diversidad alimentaria mínima (DDM) y consumo de alimentos ultraprocesados en niños de 6-23 meses según variables sociodemográficas. Se construyeron tres indicadores de alimentación complementaria de 4.354 niños de el Estudio Nacional de Alimentación y Nutrición Infantil (ENANI-2019) a partir de un cuestionario sobre el consumo de alimentos el día anterior a la entrevista: DDM, consumo de alimentos ultraprocesados y DDM sin consumo de alimentos ultraprocesados. Se calcularon la prevalencia y los IC95%, estratificados por macrorregión; raza/color de piel, situación educativa y laboral de la madre o cuidador; inscripción al Programa Bolsa Familia; seguridad alimentaria del hogar; saneamiento; e inscripción de niños en guarderías/escuelas. La prevalencia general de DDM fue del 63,4%, con prevalencias menores entre los niños que vivían en la Región Norte (54,8%), cuyas madres o cuidadores tenían entre 0-7 años de escolaridad (50.6%) y los que vivían en inseguridad alimentaria moderada o grave (52,6%). Los alimentos ultraprocesados fueron consumidos por el 80,5% de los niños, con mayor prevalencia en la Región Norte (84,5%). La prevalencia de DDM sin alimentos ultraprocesados fue del 8,4%, siendo menos prevalente entre niños de padres negros (3,6%) y con 8-10 años de escolaridad (3,6%). Los grupos de alimentos más consumidos del indicador DDM fueron los granos, raíces y tubérculos (90,2%), y los productos lácteos (81%) y los de alimentos ultraprocesados fueron las galletas (51,3%) y los cereales instantáneos (41,4%). La presencia ubicua de alimentos ultraprocesados en las dietas de los niños brasileños y la baja frecuencia diversidad dietética, especialmente entre las poblaciones más vulnerables, indican la necesidad de fortalecer políticas y programas para garantizar una nutrición infantil adecuada y saludable.

Nutrition transition in Brazilian children under 5 years old from 2006 to 2019 / Transição nutricional em crianças brasileiras menores de 5 anos de idade entre 2006 e 2019 / Transición nutricional en niños brasileños menores de 5 años de edad entre 2006 y 2019

Abstract: This manuscript aims to report the nutrition transition in Brazilian children under 5 years old from 2006 to 2019. Microdata from the Brazilian National Survey on Demography and Health of Women and Children (PNDS 2006) and the Brazilian National Survey on Child Nutrition (ENANI-2019) were analyzed. The indicators considered were: micronutrient status (anemia and vitamin A deficiency), anthropometric status (stunting and excessive weight), and breastfeeding practice (exclusive breastfeeding among children < 6 months and continued breastfeeding among children 12-23 months). We also analyzed minimum dietary diversity (MDD), consumption of ultra-processed foods, consumption of meat or eggs, and not consuming fruits or vegetables in children 6-59 months of age only for ENANI-2019. Equiplot charts were generated according to geographic region, maternal schooling level, and maternal race/skin color. From 2006 to 2019, the prevalence rates of anemia and vitamin A deficiency decreased from 20.5% to 10.1% and 17.2% to 6%, respectively. The prevalence of stunting remained at 7%, and excessive weight rates increased from 6% to 10.1%. The prevalence of exclusive breastfeeding among children < 6 months increased from 38.6% to 45.8%, and of continued breastfeeding among children 12-23 months from 34.6% to 43.6%. In 2019, 61.5% of children achieved the MDD, 88.8% consumed ultra-processed foods, 83.1% consumed meat or egg, and 25.7% did not consume fruits or vegetables the day before the survey. Trends of decreased micronutrient deficiencies, increased breastfeeding, and excessive weight rates, as well as reductions in disparities related to geographic region, maternal schooling level, and maternal race/skin color, were observed for most of the indicators.

Resumo: Buscamos reportar a transição nutricional em crianças brasileiras menores de 5 anos de idade entre 2006 e 2019. Foram analisados microdados da Pesquisa Nacional de Demografia e Saúde da Criança e da Mulher (PNDS 2006) e do Estudo Nacional de Alimentação e Nutrição Infantil (ENANI-2019). Foram considerados os seguintes indicadores: status de micronutrientes (anemia e deficiência de vitamina A), estado nutricional antropométrico (excesso de peso e baixa estatura) e a prática de aleitamento materno (aleitamento materno exclusivo entre crianças < 6 meses e aleitamento materno continuado entre crianças de 12-23 meses). Analisamos a diversidade alimentar mínima (DAM), o consumo de alimentos ultraprocessados, de carne ou ovos e o não consumo de frutas ou hortaliças apenas para o ENANI-2019 em crianças de 6-59 meses de idade. Equiplots foram gerados de acordo com a região geográfica, escolaridade e raça/cor da pele maternas. Entre 2006 e 2019, as prevalências de anemia e deficiência de vitamina A diminuíram de 20,5% para 10,1% e de 17,2% para 6%, respectivamente. A prevalência de déficit de estatura manteve-se em 7% e a de excesso de peso aumentou de 6% para 10,1%. A prevalência de aleitamento materno exclusivo entre crianças < 6 meses aumentou de 38,6% para 45,8% e a de aleitamento materno continuado entre crianças de 12-23 meses aumentou de 34,6% para 43,6%. Em 2019, 61,5% das crianças atingiram a DAM, 88,8% consumiram alimentos ultraprocessados, 83,1% consumiram carne ou ovos e 25,7% não consumiram frutas ou hortaliças no dia anterior à pesquisa. Observamos tendências de diminuição das deficiências de micronutrientes, aumento do aleitamento materno e excesso de peso e reduções em disparidades regional, de escolaridade e de raça/cor da pele maternas para a maioria dos indicadores.

Resumen: Buscamos informar sobre la transición nutricional en niños brasileños menores de 5 años entre 2006 y 2019. Se analizaron microdatos de la Encuesta Nacional de Demografía y Salud del Niño y de la Mujer (PNDS 2006) y del Encuesta Nacional de Alimentación Nutrición Infantil (ENANI-2019). Se consideraron los siguientes indicadores: estado de micronutrientes (anemia y deficiencia de vitamina A), estado nuricional antropométrico (sobrepeso y baja estatura) y la práctica de la lactancia materna (lactancia materna exclusiva en niños < 6 meses y lactancia materna continua entre niños de 12-23 meses) como indicadores. Analizamos la diversidad dietética mínima (DDM), el consumo de alimentos ultraprocesados, carne o huevos, y el no consumo de frutas o verduras solo para ENANI-2019 en niños de 6-59 meses de edad. Se generaron equiplots en función de la región geográfica, la educación y raza/color de la piel de la madre. Entre 2006 y 2019, las prevalencias de anemia y deficiencia de vitamina A disminuyeron del 20,5% al 10,1% y del 17,2% al 6%, respectivamente. La prevalencia del déficit de estatura se mantuvo en el 7 % y la de sobrepeso aumentó del 6% al 10,1%. La prevalencia de lactancia materna exclusiva en niños < 6 aumentó del 38,6% al 45,8% y la de lactancia materna continua entre niños de 12-23 meses aumentó del 34,6% al 43,6%. En 2019, el 61,5% de los niños alcanzaron DDM, el 88,8% consumieron alimentos utraprocesados, el 83,1% consumieron carne o huevos y el 25,7% no consumieron frutas o verduras el día anterior a la encuesta. Observamos tendencias de disminución de las deficiencias de micronutrientes, un aumento de la lactancia materna y sobrepeso y reducciones en las disparidades regionales, de escolaridad y de raza/color de la piel de la madre para la mayoría de los indicadores.