Validity of Various Methods for Determining Velocity, Force, and Power in the Back Squat.

PURPOSE: To examine the validity of 2 kinematic systems for assessing mean velocity (MV), peak velocity (PV), mean force (MF), peak force (PF), mean power (MP), and peak power (PP) during the full-depth free-weight back squat performed with maximal concentric effort. METHODS: Ten strength-trained men (26.1 ± 3.0 y, 1.81 ± 0.07 m, 82.0 ± 10.6 kg) performed three 1-repetition-maximum (1RM) trials on 3 separate days, encompassing lifts performed at 6 relative intensities including 20%, 40%, 60%, 80%, 90%, and 100% of 1RM. Each repetition was simultaneously recorded by a PUSH band and commercial linear position transducer (LPT) (GymAware [GYM]) and compared with measurements collected by a laboratory-based testing device consisting of 4 LPTs and a force plate. RESULTS: Trials 2 and 3 were used for validity analyses. Combining all 120 repetitions indicated that the GYM was highly valid for assessing all criterion variables while the PUSH was only highly valid for estimations of PF (r = .94, CV = 5.4%, ES = 0.28, SEE = 135.5 N). At each relative intensity, the GYM was highly valid for assessing all criterion variables except for PP at 20% (ES = 0.81) and 40% (ES = 0.67) of 1RM. Moreover, the PUSH was only able to accurately estimate PF across all relative intensities (r = .92-.98, CV = 4.0-8.3%, ES = 0.04-0.26, SEE = 79.8-213.1 N). CONCLUSIONS: PUSH accuracy for determining MV, PV, MF, MP, and PP across all 6 relative intensities was questionable for the back squat, yet the GYM was highly valid at assessing all criterion variables, with some caution given to estimations of MP and PP performed at lighter loads.

Monitoring training load, recovery-stress state, immune-endocrine responses, and physical performance in elite female basketball players during a periodized training program.

This study investigated the effect of a periodized training program on internal training load (ITL), recovery-stress state, immune-endocrine responses, and physical performance in 19 elite female basketball players. The participants were monitored across a 12-week period before an international championship, which included 2 overloading and tapering phases. The first overloading phase (fourth to sixth week) was followed by a 1-week tapering, and the second overloading phase (eighth to 10th week) was followed by a 2-week tapering. ITL (session rating of perceived exertion method) and recovery-stress state (RESTQ-76 Sport questionnaire) were assessed weekly and bi-weekly, respectively. Pretraining and posttraining assessments included measures of salivary IgA, testosterone and cortisol concentrations, strength, jumping power, running endurance, and agility. Internal training load increased across all weeks from 2 to 11 (p ≤ 0.05). After the first tapering period (week 7), a further increase in ITL was observed during the second overloading phase (p ≤ 0.05). After the second tapering period, a decrease in ITL was detected (p ≤ 0.05). A disturbance in athlete stress-recovery state was noted during the second overloading period (p ≤ 0.05), before returning to baseline level in end of the second tapering period. The training program led to significant improvements in the physical performance parameters evaluated. The salivary measures did not change despite the fluctuations in ITL. In conclusion, a periodized training program evoked changes in ITL in elite female basketball players, which appeared to influence their recovery-stress state. The training plan was effective in preparing participants for competition, as indicated by improvements in recovery-stress state and physical performance after tapering.

Effects of weighted sled towing on ground reaction force during the acceleration phase of sprint running.

Athletes use weighted sled towing to improve sprint ability, but little is known about its biomechanics. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of weighted sled towing with two different loads on ground reaction force. Ten physically active men (mean ± SD: age 27.9 ± 1.9 years; stature 1.76 ± 0.06 m; body mass 80.2 ± 9.6 kg) performed 5 m sprints under three conditions; (a) unresisted, (b) towing a sled weighing 10% of body mass (10% condition) and (c) towing a sled weighing 30% of body mass (30% condition). Ground reaction force data during the second ground contact after the start were recorded and compared across the three conditions. No significant differences between the unresisted and 10% conditions were evident, whereas the 30% condition resulted in significantly greater values for the net horizontal and propulsive impulses (P < 0.05) compared with the unresisted condition due to longer contact time and more horizontal direction of force application to the ground. It is concluded that towing a sled weighing 30% of body mass requires more horizontal force application and increases the demand for horizontal impulse production. In contrast, the use of 10% body mass has minimal impact on ground reaction force.

Respiratory muscle training for respiratory deficits in neurodegenerative disorders: a systematic review.

BACKGROUND: Studies of the impact of respiratory muscle training (RMT) on central neurodegenerative pathologies have been aimed at improving pulmonary function. However, there is no certainty about the effectiveness of RMT in patients affected by these groups of disorders. The purpose of this review was to assess the evidence regarding the efficacy of inspiratory muscle training (IMT) and expiratory muscle training (EMT) on respiratory function in patients with neurodegenerative disorders of the CNS. METHODS: A comprehensive search from 1990 to September 2012 on MEDLINE, Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro), PubMed, Cochrane Library, and Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL) databases was made. Studies reporting on IMT and EMT in patients with neurodegenerative diseases were included. The selected studies were abstracted using a standardized data collection instrument and were assessed by a quality checklist created and adapted from CONSORT (Consolidated Standards for Reporting Trials) and TREND (Transparent Reporting of Evaluation with Nonrandomized Designs). RESULTS: Twenty-four studies were identified by the search strategy. Only 19 studies met the criteria for full review. Ten studies met all the inclusion criteria and were included in the final analysis. Of the 16 parameters present in the quality assessment checklist, only six were achieved for the studies analyzed. CONCLUSIONS: There is some evidence that RMT improves a number of respiratory function parameters in patients with Parkinson disease and multiple sclerosis; however, the number of studies and their quality are not sufficient to conclude whether IMT or EMT is effective in improving respiratory function in patients with neurodegenerative disorders of the CNS.

Effects of a 5-h hilly running on ankle plantar and dorsal flexor force and fatigability.

This study aimed to examine the effects of a 5-h hilly run on ankle plantar (PF) and dorsal flexor (DF) force and fatigability. It was hypothesised that DF fatigue/fatigability would be greater than PF fatigue/fatigability. Eight male trail long distance runners (42.5 ± 5.9 years) were tested for ankle PF and DF maximal voluntary isokinetic contraction strength and fatigue resistance tests (percent decrement score), maximal voluntary and electrically evoked isometric contraction strength before and after the run. Maximal EMG root mean square (RMS(max)) and mean power frequency (MPF) values of the tibialis anterior (TA), gastrocnemius lateralis (GL) and soleus (SOL) EMG activity were calculated. The peak torque of the potentiated high- and low-frequency doublets and the ratio of paired stimulation peak torques at 10 Hz over 100 Hz (Db10:100) were analysed for PF. Maximal voluntary isometric contraction strength of PF decreased from pre- to post-run (-17.0 ± 6.2%; P < 0.05), but no significant decrease was evident for DF (-7.9 ± 6.2%). Maximal voluntary isokinetic contraction strength and fatigue resistance remained unchanged for both PF and DF. RMS(max) SOL during maximal voluntary isometric contraction and RMS(max) TA during maximal voluntary isokinetic contraction were decreased (P < 0.05) after the run. For MPF, a significant decrease for TA (P < 0.05) was found and the ratio Db10:100 decreased for PF (-6.5 ± 6.0%; P < 0.05). In conclusion, significant isometric strength loss was only detected for PF after a 5-h hilly run and was partly due to low-frequency fatigue. This study contradicted the hypothesis that neuromuscular alterations due to prolonged hilly running are predominant for DF.

The effect of aerobic exercise during the interset rest periods on kinematics, kinetics, and lactate clearance of two resistance loading schemes.

It may be possible to enhance set and session kinematics and kinetics by engaging in low-intensity aerobic exercise during the interset rest period. The purpose of this study therefore was to quantify the change in session kinematics and kinetics of 35% 1RM and 70% 1RM loading schemes equated by volume, when aerobic exercise or passive rest was undertaken between sets. Twelve male student athletes were recruited for this study. Squat average force, peak force, average power, peak power, total work, and total impulse were quantified using a force plate and linear transducer. Blood lactate samples were taken before set 1, after set 1, after set 2, and after the last set performed. No significant (p < 0.05) differences (0.37-9.24%) were found in any of the kinematic and kinetic variables of interset after active or passive interset rest periods. Significant increases (64-76%) in blood lactate occurred from the inception of exercise to completion, for both the heavy and light loading schemes. However, no significant differences in lactate accumulation were noted, whether active or passive recovery was undertaken in the interest rest period. It was concluded that active recovery in the form of low-intensity cycling offered no additional benefits in terms of lactate clearance and enhancement of set and session kinematics and kinetics.

Difference in kinematics and kinetics between high- and low-velocity resistance loading equated by volume: implications for hypertrophy training.

Although it is generally accepted that a high load is necessary for muscle hypertrophy, it is possible that a low load with a high velocity results in greater kinematics and kinetics than does a high load with a slow velocity. The purpose of this study was to determine if 2 training loads (35 and 70% 1 repetition maximum [1RM]) equated by volume, differed in terms of their session kinematic and kinetic characteristics. Twelve subjects were recruited in this acute randomized within-subject crossover design study. Two bouts of a half-squat exercise were performed 1 week apart, one with high load-low velocity (HLLV = 3 sets of 12 reps at 70% 1RM) and the other with low-load high-velocity (LLHV = 6 sets of 12 reps at 35% 1RM). Time under tension (TUT), average force, peak force (PF), average power (AP), peak power (PP), work (TW), and total impulse (TI) were calculated and compared between loads for the eccentric and concentric phases. For average eccentric and concentric single repetition values, significantly (p < 0.05) greater (∼15-22%) PP outputs were associated with the LLHV loading, whereas significantly greater (∼7-61%) values were associated with the HLLV condition for most other variables of interest. However, in terms of total session kinematics and kinetics, the LLHV protocol resulted in significantly greater (∼16-61%) eccentric and concentric TUT, PF, AP, PP, and TW. The only variable that was significantly greater for the HLLV protocol than for the LLHV protocol was TI (∼20-24%). From these results, it seems that the LLHV protocol may offer an equal if not better training stimulus for muscular adaptation than the HLLV protocol, because of the greater time under tension, power, force, and work output when the total volume of the exercise is equated.

Corticomotor excitability of wrist flexor and extensor muscles during active and passive movement.

The excitability of the corticospinal projection to upper and lower limbs is constantly modulated during voluntary and passive movement; however a direct comparison during a comparable movement has not been reported. In the present study we used transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) to compare corticomotor excitability to the extensor and flexor carpi radialis (ECR/FCR) muscles of the forearm during voluntary rhythmic wrist movement (through 45 degrees of range), during a matched (for range and rhythm) passive movement of the wrist, and while the wrist was stationary (in mid-range). TMS was delivered when the wrist was in the neutral position. With passive and active movement, and for both FCR and ECR, corticomotor excitability was reduced during lengthening relative to shortening phases of movement. With active movement, this pattern was maintained and superimposed on an overall increase in excitability to both muscles that was greater for the ECR. The results favor a common pattern of excitability changes shared by extensor and flexor muscles as they undergo lengthening and shortening, which may be mediated by afferent input during both passive and active movement. This is combined with an overall increase in excitability associated with active movement that is greater for extensor muscles perhaps due to differences in the strength of the corticomotor projection to these muscles.

Effects of eccentric exercise on optimum length of the knee flexors and extensors during the preseason in professional soccer players.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the effects of eccentric exercise on optimum lengths of the knee flexors and extensors during the preseason in professional soccer. DESIGN: Twenty-eight athletes from a professional Spanish soccer team (Division II) were randomly assigned to an eccentric exercise intervention group (EG) or a control group (CG). Over the four-week period two athletes from the control group suffered RF injuries and two athletes were contracted by other clubs. After these exclusions, both groups (EG, n=13; and CG, n=11) performed regular soccer training during the four-week preseason period. RESULTS: After the four weeks, the optimum lengths of the knee flexors were significantly (P<0.05) increased by 2.3 degrees in the CG and by 4.0 degrees in the EG. The change in the EG was significantly (P<0.05) greater than that of the CG. The optimum lengths of the knee extensors were significantly increased only in the EG by 6.5 degrees . Peak torque levels and ratios of quadriceps to hamstring (Q/H ratios) were not significantly altered throughout the study for either group. CONCLUSION: Eccentric exercise can increase the optimum lengths of both the knee extensors and knee extensors flexors during the preseason in professional soccer.

Effect of hot versus cold climates on power output, muscle activation, and perceived fatigue during a dynamic 100-km cycling trial.

The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of environmental temperature on power output, muscle activation, body temperature, and perceived physical strain during a dynamic self-paced 100-km cycling trial. Nine endurance-trained male cyclists (mean + or - s: age 31 + or - 6 years; VO(2max) 62.1 + or - 8.5 ml x kg(-1) x min(-1)) completed two 100-km experimental trials, interspersed with five 1-km and four 4-km high-intensity epochs, in hot (34 degrees C) and cold (10 degrees C) environments. Measurements consisted of power output, rectal and skin temperature, muscle activation of vastus lateralis, biceps femoris and soleus, ratings of perceived exertion, thermal sensation and pain intensity in the quadriceps. Power output and muscle activation of the biceps femoris and soleus were lower in the hot trial (22 km; P < 0.05) prior to significant (P < 0.05) differences in rectal temperature [38.8 degrees C (cold) vs. 39.1 degrees C (hot)] at 42 km. Muscle activation of the vastus lateralis, biceps femoris, and soleus was significantly (P < 0.001) correlated with power output and thermal sensation (r > 0.68) but not with perceived pain or exertion. Thus, a hyperthermic-induced anticipatory reduction of muscle activation may have occurred during the hot exercise trials only. Fatigue and pacing during prolonged dynamic exercise in the cold appears to be influenced by factors dissociated from hyperthermic-induced stress.

Contralateral leg deficits in kinetic and kinematic variables during running in Australian rules football players with previous hamstring injuries.

Contralateral leg deficits between lower limbs during athletic movements are thought to increase the risk of injury and compromise performance. The purpose of this study was to quantify the magnitude of leg deficits during running in noninjured and previously injured Australian Rules football (ARF) players. The players included a group of noninjured ARF players (n = 11) and a group of previously injured ARF players (n = 11; hamstring injuries only). The players in the injured group (IG) had at least 1 acute hamstring injury in the previous 2 years. The legs of the noninjured players (NIG) were classified as right and left, whereas the legs of the injured players were classified as injured or noninjured. The players ran on a nonmotorized force treadmill at approximately 80% of their maximum velocity (Vmax). For the NIG, there were no significant differences between right and left legs for any of the variables. For the IG, the only variable that was significantly (p < 0.001) different between the injured and noninjured leg was horizontal force (175 +/- 30 vs. 326 +/- 44 N). Furthermore, horizontal force was significantly greater in the noninjured leg (IG) in comparison with either legs in the NIG (19.2% and 20.5%) and significantly less in the injured leg (IG) in comparison with either legs of the NIG (31.5% and 32.7%). In the present study, athletes with previous hamstring injuries had contralateral leg deficits in horizontal but not vertical force during running at submaximal velocities.

Muscle architecture and optimum angle of the knee flexors and extensors: a comparison between cyclists and Australian Rules football players.

The purpose of this study was to investigate differences in optimum angle of peak torque (knee extensors and flexors) and muscle architecture (vastus lateralis) between 9 cyclists and 9 Australian Rules football (ARF) players. The angles of peak torque of the ARF players were significantly (p < 0.05) greater during knee extension (70.8 +/- 3.5 vs. 66.6 +/- 5.9 degrees) and smaller during knee flexion (26.2 +/- 2.9 vs. 32.3 +/- 3.8 degrees) compared with the cyclists. The ARF players had significantly (p < 0.05) smaller pennation angles (19.3 +/- 2.0 vs. 24.9 +/- 2.5 degrees) and longer fascicle lengths (7.9 +/- 0.7 vs. 6.2 +/- 0.8 cm) in comparison with the cyclists. There were no significant differences between groups regarding muscle thickness or peak torque ratios between the quadriceps and hamstrings. Muscle architectural changes associated with resistance strength training need to be investigated so that the effects of training on architecture and functional performance can be determined.

Variability and influence of eccentric kinematics on unilateral vertical, horizontal, and lateral countermovement jump performance.

The purposes of this study were to determine the (a) magnitude of variability associated with certain eccentric variables (eccentric peak velocity, displacement, and ground contact time) during unilateral countermovement jump performance (vertical [VCMJ], horizontal [HCMJ], and lateral [LCMJ]); (b) differences between limbs as well as between jumps; and (c) relationship between jump performance and the eccentric variables of interest. The jumping ability in 3 directions (VCMJ, HCMJ, and LCMJ) of 30 field sport athletes were assessed. The variability (coefficient of variation [CV]) of the eccentric variables was the lowest for the VCMJ (CV = 8.5-10.6%) and the highest for the HCMJ (CV = 11.7%-13.5%). No difference was found between limbs in the variables of interest. Significant statistical differences (p < 0.05) across the different jumps were found in the eccentric variables (9.1-29.4%). No significant correlations between the eccentric variables and jump performance were found for the VCMJ; however, significant correlations were found between jump length and eccentric displacement or eccentric peak velocity in both HCMJ (r = -0.60 and 0.57) and LCMJ (r = -0.54 and 0.37), respectively. It appears that in the absence of instruction and standardization of the countermovement, eccentric phase kinematics remains relatively stable over trials. In terms of the between jump analysis, it appears that the eccentric phase kinematics are relatively unique to each jump and directionally specific and therefore may need to be trained accordingly.

Effect of cold-water immersion duration on body temperature and muscle function.

This study compared the effect of 5, 10 and 20 min of cold-water (14 degrees C) immersion on rectal and muscle temperature and neuromuscular function. Twelve cyclists performed four cycling time-to-exhaustion trials in hot conditions (40 degrees C and 40%rh), followed 25 min later by cold-water immersion for 5, 10 or 20 min or 20 min in room temperature (24 degrees C; control). Rectal temperature was measured continuously, and muscle temperature was measured before, immediately after and 45 min after the time-to-exhaustion-test, as well as before and after water immersion. Sixty-second maximal voluntary isometric torque and isokinetic torque of the knee extensors were measured before, immediately after and 55 min after time-to-exhaustion-test. A greater rate of decrease in rectal temperature was observed in all water immersion conditions 45-80 min after time-to-exhaustion-test compared with control. Compared with control, muscle temperature 45 min after time-to-exhaustion-test was lower for all water immersion conditions; however, muscle temperature was lower for the 10- and 20-min conditions compared with 5 min. Isometric torque measured 55 min after time-to-exhaustion-test was lower for all conditions. Isokinetic torque was lower for all conditions immediately and 55-min post-time-to-exhaustion-test. Of the durations measured, 5 min of cold-water immersion appeared as the most appropriate duration for reducing rectal temperature but limiting decreases in muscle temperature.

Using a virtual body to aid in exergaming system development.

A framework for simulating physiological responses to exercise lets exergame developers more efficiently test their games during development. An example implementation combines software that simulates heart-rate responses with a custom hardware setup. Simulated heart-rate responses closely match the real physiological responses, demonstrating the approach's validity and potential.

Application of eccentric exercise on an Australian Rules football player with recurrent hamstring injuries.

STUDY DESIGN: Case report. OBJECTIVE: To assess an eccentric based intervention on an Australian Football player with recurrent hamstring injuries. CASE DESCRIPTION: The athlete attempted several conventional rehabilitation programs in the past (e.g. physical therapy, manual therapy, acupuncture, active release, medial gluteal strengthening) with no sustained progress in regards to pain, soreness, or return to sport. OUTCOMES: After the first three phases of the intervention (i.e. nine weeks), the optimum angle of peak torque during knee flexion decreased from 37.3 to 23.9 degrees in the injured leg, and from 24.3 to 20.3 degrees in the non-injured leg. After the first nine weeks, the optimum angles then remained constant for another 23 weeks. The optimum angle of peak torque was also shifted in the knee extensors by 3.9 degrees (injured leg) and 3.4 degrees (non-injured leg) after nine weeks and then remained constant for the remaining 23 weeks. Quadriceps to hamstring peak torque ratio's (Q/H ratios) and peak torque during knee flexion and extension remained constant throughout the intervention. DISCUSSION: An eccentric based intervention was shown to be safe and effective for altering the optimum angle of peak torque (i.e. shifting to longer muscle lengths) for this athlete with recurrent hamstring injuries.

Effect of bench press exercise intensity on muscle soreness and inflammatory mediators.

This study compared four different intensities of a bench press exercise for muscle soreness, creatine kinase activity, interleukin (IL)-1beta, IL-6, tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), and prostaglandin E(2) (PGE(2)) concentrations in the blood. Thirty-five male Brazilian Army soldiers were randomly assigned to one of five groups: 50% one-repetition maximum (1-RM), 75% 1-RM, 90% 1-RM, 110% 1-RM, and a control group that did not perform the exercise. The total volume (sets x repetitions x load) of the exercise was matched among the exercise groups. Muscle soreness and plasma creatine kinase activity increased markedly (P < 0.05) after exercise, with no significant differences among the groups. Serum PGE(2) concentration also increased markedly (P < 0.05) after exercise, with a significantly (P < 0.05) greater increase in the 110% 1-RM group compared with the other groups. A weak but significant (P < 0.05) correlation was found between peak muscle soreness and peak PGE(2) concentration, but no significant correlation was evident between peak muscle soreness and peak creatine kinase activity, or peak creatine kinase activity and peak PGE(2) concentration. All groups showed no changes in IL-1beta, IL-6 or TNF-alpha. Our results suggest that the intensity of bench press exercise does not affect the magnitude of muscle soreness and blood markers of muscle damage and inflammation.