Waiting time care guarantees: necessity or nemesis?

One of the priorities of governments in Canada is to reduce long waiting times for health services. This has raised the prospect of introducing waiting time care guarantees. Such guarantees affirm the healthcare system's social contract with the public and provide an entitlement to Canadians to receive timely care. There are clinical, legal and political implications, which must be considered and well managed before introduction. Other countries have ventured down this path. They teach us that waiting time care guarantees are good policy and make good sense. Correspondingly, they remind us not to make a promise we are not ready to keep.

Determinants of patient satisfaction with cataract surgery and length of time on the waiting list.

AIMS: To assess determinants of patient satisfaction with their waiting time (WT) and cataract surgery outcome. METHODS: A prospective cohort of consecutive patients waiting for cataract surgery were assessed by their ophthalmologist. Satisfaction, maximum acceptable waiting time (MAWT), urgency, visual function, visual acuity (VA), and health related quality of life (EQ-5D) were assessed using mailed questionnaires before surgery and 8-10 weeks after surgery. Ordinal logistic regression was used to build explanatory models. RESULTS: 166 patients (61.9% female, mean age 73.4 years) had a mean WT of 16 weeks. Patients whose actual WT was shorter than their MAWT had greater odds of being satisfied with their WT than those whose WT was longer (adjusted OR 3.86, 95% CI 1.38 to 10.74). Improvement in visual function (OR 3.19, 95% CI 1.78 to 5.73), and VA (OR 4.27, 95% CI 1.70 to 10.68) significantly predicted satisfaction with surgery. Models were adjusted for age and sex. CONCLUSION: Patient perspectives on MAWT and satisfaction with WT are important inputs to the process of determining WT standards for levels of patient priority. Patient expectation of WT may mediate satisfaction with actual WT.

Waiting for scheduled services in Canada: development of priority-setting scoring systems.

RATIONALE, AIMS AND OBJECTIVES: An Achilles' heel of Canadian Medicare is long waits for elective services. The Western Canada Waiting List (WCWL) project is a collaboration of 19 partner organizations committed to addressing this issue and influencing the way waiting lists are structured and managed. The focus of the WCWL project has been to develop and refine practical tools for prioritizing patients on scheduled waiting lists. METHODS: Scoring tools for priority setting were developed through extensive clinical input and highly iterative exchange by clinical panels constituted in five clinical areas: cataract surgery; general surgery procedures; hip and knee replacement; magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scanning, and children's mental health. Several stages of empirical work were conducted to formulate and refine criteria and to assess and improve their reliability and validity. To assess the acceptability and usability of the priority-setting tools and to identify issues pertaining to implementation, key personnel in the seven regional health authorities (RHAs) participated in structured interviews. Public opinion focus groups were conducted in the seven western cities. RESULTS: Point-count scoring systems were constructed in each of the clinical areas. Participating clinicians confirmed that the tools offered face validity and that the scoring systems appeared practical for implementation and use in clinical settings. Reliability was strongest for the general surgery and hip and knee criteria, and weakest for the diagnostic MRI criteria. Public opinion focus groups endorsed wholeheartedly the application of point-count priority measures. Regional health authorities were generally supportive, though cautiously optimistic towards implementation. CONCLUSIONS: While the WCWL project has not 'solved' the problem of waiting lists and times, having a standardized, reliable means of assigning priority for services is an important step towards improved management in Canada and elsewhere.

Is it 'worthwhile' to continue treating patients with a prolonged stay (>14 days) in the ICU? An economic evaluation.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the cost and consequences of a policy of continuing to care for patients with a prolonged stay in the ICU with a proposed policy of withdrawing support. DESIGN: Economic evaluation using data derived from a prospective cohort study. SETTING: Adult medical/surgical ICU in a tertiary care hospital. PATIENTS: Consecutive patients admitted to the ICU. INTERVENTION: None. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: We performed a cost-accounting analysis on each patient in the ICU and followed up patients until 12 months after admission to ICU and assessed components of quality of life in survivors. RESULTS: During the study period, 690 patients were admitted to the ICU. Only 61 (9%) patients remained in the ICU for > 14 days. For this group, the mean length of stay in the ICU was 24.5 (+/-11.7) days and duration in hospital was 57.9 (+/-56.9) days. At 12 months, 27 (44%) were alive. Overall, the mean quality of life score at 12 months did not differ between patients with a short or prolonged stay in the ICU. The average ICU cost per day per patient was $1,565 (Canadian) resulting in a total cost for the whole cohort of Can $1,917,382. Over the same time period, 58 patients had life support withdrawn. On average, patients survived another day in the ICU, 2 more days in hospital, and all patients ultimately died. When treatment was discontinued, the costs of treating this cohort was Can $156,465. The incremental cost-effectiveness ratio is Can $65,219 per life saved or Can $4,350 per life-year saved. CONCLUSIONS: A considerable proportion of patients with a prolonged length of stay in the ICU survive their critical illness. Furthermore, their long-term quality of life seems reasonable. Our data suggest that continuing treatment for patients with a prolonged ICU stay may represent an efficient use of hospital resources and should be considered in the context of local budgets.

Canada deserves a national health system.

A defining--some would say peculiar--feature about Canada and Canadians is the strong position that we give social programs within our national identity. FORUM presents an essay by Dr. Thomas Noseworthy based on an address to the annual meeting of the Association of Canadian Medical Colleges in April 1996. In it, Dr. Noseworthy calls for a national health system. He sees the federal government retaining an important role in preserving medicare and, in fact, strengthening its powers in maintaining national consistency and standards. Dr. Noseworthy's views are contrary to the governmental decentralization and devolution of powers occurring across the country. In a "point/counterpoint" exchange on this issue, we have invited commentaries from three experts. Raisa Deber leads off by noting that while a national health system may be desirable, constitutional provisions would be an obstacle. Governments, says Deber, have an inherent conflict of interest between their responsibility for maintaining the health care system and their desire to shift costs. Michael Rachlis reminds us that medicare fulfills important economic as well as social objectives. It helps to support Canada's business competitiveness among other nations. The problem, say Rachlis, is that public financing of health care does not ensure an efficient delivery system. Michael Walker offers some reality orientation. He observes that Canada's health care system is based upon ten public insurance schemes with widely different attributes. While he supports a minimum standard of health care across the country, citizens should be able to purchase private medical insurance and have access to a parallel private health care delivery system. Ultimately, this debate is about who should control social programs: the provinces or the federal government? We'll let you, the readers, decide.

Cost accounting of adult intensive care: methods and human and capital inputs.

OBJECTIVE: To cost adult intensive care by determining inputs to production, resource consumption per patient, and total cost per intensive care unit (ICU) stay. DESIGN: Prospective cost-accounting analysis of each patient stay in the ICU, over a 1-yr period. SETTING: An 11-bed, medical/surgical adult ICU, in a 932-bad urban teaching hospital. PATIENTS: All patients' admissions to an adult ICU over a 1-yr period, excluding those patients admitted solely for repeat hemodialysis. INTERVENTIONS: None. MEASUREMENT AND MAIN RESULTS: Demographic information was collected, including age, gender, Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation (APACHE) II score, primary reason for ICU admission, operative (elective and emergency) and nonoperative status, ICU length of stay, and ICU outcome. Direct patient care costs were accounted to individual patients whose care generated those costs, and indirect patient care costs were averaged over all patients in the ICU on a daily basis. Costs were collected for human (nursing, medical, professional, and support staff) and capital (laboratory, diagnostic imaging, supplies, drugs, and equipment) resources. Cost information was available on 690 patients (43% female, 57% male). Cost/day/patient was $1,508 +/- 475 (1992 Canadian dollars) and the average cost per ICU stay was $7,520 +/- 11,606. Median cost/stay for all patients was $2,600. Cost per ICU stay was < $5,000 in 68% of patients, with an ICU survival rate of 85%. High cost was not a marker for poor survival. There was no relationship between age and cost categories. Across most diagnoses, cost/ day/patient was remarkably constant, approximating $1,500/day/ patient at existing labor rates. CONCLUSIONS: In order to develop strategies aimed at cost containment, it is first necessary to undertake a thorough examination of cost drivers. This detailed cost-accounting study determined inputs to production, resources consumed by individual patients, and costs incurred during ICU stay.

Quality of life measures before and one year after admission to an intensive care unit.

OBJECTIVE: To assess outcome of patients admitted to an intensive care unit (ICU), using a prospective 1-yr follow-up, with special emphasis on various quality of life measures before and after admission to the ICU. DESIGN: Prospective comparison of quality of life before and 1 yr after admission to the ICU. SETTING: Eleven-bed adult medical/surgical ICU. PATIENTS: All patients admitted to the ICU over a 1-yr period were eligible for inclusion in this study. Repeat admissions were enrolled only on first admission. Patients < 17 yrs of age and those patients who died within 24 hrs of admission were excluded. INTERVENTIONS: Quality of life measures were collected before and 6 and 12 months after ICU admission. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: The following data were collected: duration of ICU and hospital stay; ICU, hospital, 6- and 12-month mortality; quality of life (level of activity, activities of daily living, perceived health, support, and outlook on life) and place of residence at baseline and 12 months after ICU admission. There were 504 patients who met the study criteria; age 55 +/- 20 yrs (median 59), 229 female and 275 male. Mean ICU length of stay was 4.3 +/- 7.4 days. Hospital length of stay was 31 +/- 41 days. Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation II (APACHE II) score was 14 +/- 7. Cumulative mortality: ICU 5.4%, hospital 13.5%, 6 month 20.6%, and 12 month 25%. One year quality of life questionnaires were completed for 293 patients. Relative to baseline, there was a decrease in the level of activity and activities of daily living at 12 months (p < .01). Perceived health status increased over the year for patients > or = 75 yrs of age (p < .01). There was no difference in the level of support from family or friends, or outlook on life, at 12 months. At 1 yr, 262 (89%) patients were living at home. CONCLUSION: Patients admitted to intensive care tend to have a decrease in the level of activity and activities of daily living 1 yr after their ICU stay, although in the very elderly, perceived health status increases. As well, the majority (89%) of patients return home.

Caremap management in low-severity surgery: a comparative trial.

BACKGROUND: Caremap management refers to the management of defined patient groups using multidisciplinary clinical guidelines developed through literature review and expert opinion. STUDY DESIGN: Using a prospective preintervention and postintervention comparison model, this controlled study compared caremap management and traditional treatment in patients undergoing inguinal herniorrhaphy. Preintervention (n = 141) and postintervention (n = 110) groups were compared for hospital length of stay, resource consumption, and outcomes. RESULTS: Patients cared for by caremap management compared with traditional treatment showed a significant reduction in average length of stay (0.6 compared to 1.6 days, p < 0.01). Laboratory testing decreased by 60 percent in the caremap management group relative to traditional treatment (p < 0.01) and standardization of medication profiles was achieved. There were no significant differences in readmission rate, reutilization of health care services, or complications. Patients in the caremap management group indicated a preference for additional length of stay. CONCLUSIONS: Caremap management offers the potential for achieving effective patient care while using resources efficiently. Further evidence is required to demonstrate that caremap management can fulfill the promise of improving health status outcomes in varied types of patients.

One-year outcome of elderly and young patients admitted to intensive care units.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the outcome of patients over and under age 65 admitted to two intensive care units (ICUs). DESIGN: Prospective, two-center study. Convenience sample of all admissions to two adult ICUs for a 1-yr period, with a 1-yr follow-up. SETTING: Adult multidisciplinary closed ICUs. PATIENTS: All patients (n = 1,040) admitted to two ICUs during a 1-yr period were entered into the study, except patients with self-induced poisoning. Of these patients, 145 patients were lost to follow-up. INTERVENTIONS: Admission statistics on all patients included demographic, case mix, and severity data. Variables associated with intensive care unit outcomes at discharge (length of stay, mortality) and at 1 yr from admission (mortality, functional capacity, health attitudes) were analyzed. Vital status was confirmed from both Alberta Vital Statistics and Alberta Health. Follow-up interviews were conducted with all available survivors. RESULTS: The elderly group (> 65 yrs) comprised 46% of patients studied. Both age groups (> 65 yrs and < 65 yrs) had comparable demographics and illness severity measures. Although ICU and 1-yr mortality rates differed between groups (16% of > 65 yrs vs. 12.9% of < 65 yrs ICU mortality and 49% of > 65 yrs vs. 31% of < 65 yrs 1-yr mortality), age was not a major contributor to the variance in outcome. At 1 yr, 65% of patients admitted to the study were alive. Follow-up interviews were conducted with 75% of survivors. Assessment of activities of daily living showed that the elderly patients were similar to younger patients. The elderly demonstrated more positive health attitudes than younger survivors. Functional capacity was significantly associated with health attitudes of younger patients, but not for older survivors. CONCLUSIONS: Age does not have an important impact on outcome from critical illness, which is most strongly predicted by severity of illness, length of stay, prior ICU admission and respiratory failure. Satisfaction with personal health should not be inferred from the functional status of elderly survivors of intensive care.

National estimates of intensive care utilization and costs: Canada and the United States.

Although ICUs generate attention as consumers of resources, no national data on utilization and costs were available in Canada. U.S. estimates are too old for current comparison. Based on national hospital survey data from Statistics Canada, we calculated the utilization of ICUs in all Canadian general hospitals from 1969 to 1986 and estimated costs for 1986. Using the American Hospital Association's Annual Survey, we estimated comparable trend data from U.S. hospitals for the period of 1979 to 1986, and national ICU costs for 1986. The results demonstrated steady growth in Canadian utilization from 1969 to 1986, with increased ICU patient days (17 to 42 days/1000 population). National costs for 1986 were estimated at $1.03 billion (Canadian), which was roughly 8% of total inpatient costs and 0.2% of Canada's gross national product (GNP). Utilization trend data for the United States showed a rapid increase from 1979 through 1982 with slower growth after that. In the United States, ICU utilization in 1986 was estimated at 108 patient days/1000 population. Total ICU costs were estimated at $33.9 billion (U.S.), which is 20% of all inpatient hospital costs and accounts for 0.8% of the GNP. ICU utilization in the United States is 2.5 times that of Canada.

Isoflurane therapy for status asthmaticus in children and adults.

Two adults and two children with life-threatening asthma refractory to maximal standard therapy were treated with the inhalational anesthetic agent isoflurane. In each case, the temporal response to the initiation of therapy was striking. All patients survived and none experienced adverse reactions attributable to the drug. Rapid therapeutic benefit, minimal side effects, absence of cumulative toxicity, and ease of administration are factors supporting the use of isoflurane for patients with severe asthma.

Economic and ethical consideration in the intensive care unit.

Intensive care units (ICUs) sustain life but, in certain cases, this resource becomes a means to prolong dying, with great physical, emotional and financial impact. The cost to care for patients in the ICU is at least three times more than general ward care; thus, ICUs have become one of the largest cost centres in the hospital. Economic pressures require us to be mindful of whom the ICU treats and for how long. Health professionals working in the ICU must critically appraise the ethical basis for their behaviour and actions. In so doing, many are likely to appeal to the patient's right to self-determination and the physician's reliance on the principles of beneficence and non-maleficence as the underpinnings of morality in medicine. One approach is to examine the issues and rights pertinent to an individual case using a circular model. Decisions are based on medical facts and prognosis, a patient's right to self-determination, a patient's best interests and external factors. Health personnel would be compelled to consider all of these issues. Within this framework, prevention or resolution of moral dilemma can take place within the clinical rather than the legal forum.

Spironolactone-induced agranulocytosis.

Agranulocytosis associated with spironolactone administration is described in a 57-year-old man. Four days after initiation of spironolactone, leukocyte counts decreased from 8.2 to 2.3 X 10(9)/L with 6% neutrophils. Spironolactone, domperidone, and prochlorperazine were discontinued. Domperidone and prochlorperazine were reintroduced and there was concomitant improvement of the leukocyte and neutrophil counts. Substitution of triamterene for spironolactone was not associated with recurrent leukopenia. The potential association of spironolactone with granulocytopenia warrants increased awareness of this rare but serious adverse drug reaction.

A randomized clinical trial comparing ranitidine and antacids in critically ill patients.

In a randomized trial of gastric pH control for stress ulcer prophylaxis, 200 mg/day ranitidine iv was compared to antacids in 86 patients admitted to an ICU. Six (15%) patients receiving ranitidine and six (13%) given antacids failed to maintain greater than 50% of the hourly gastric pH measurements at or above 4. Increasing the ranitidine dosage to 300 mg/day did not provide additional control. One patient in the antacid group developed an overt upper GI bleed secondary to endoscopically proven erosive disease. We conclude that iv ranitidine in a dosage of 200 mg/day is as effective as antacids in reducing gastric acidity and preventing stress ulcer disease in critically ill patients.

Massive hemoptysis.

Hemoptysis is usually a symptom of cardiopulmonary disease and is generally not in itself associated with death. A blood loss into the tracheobronchial tree of 600 ml in 24 hours or at a rate that poses a threat to life is referred to as massive hemoptysis. Hypervascularity within the bronchial circulation, usually associated with diffuse inflammatory disease of the lung, is common in patients with massive hemoptysis. Management should be directed at maintenance of oxygenation and localization of the source of bleeding. Temporizing maneuvers such as iced saline lavage, intravenous administration of vasopressin, endobronchial tamponade and bronchial artery embolization will often stabilize the patient in preparation for definitive surgery. Such a sequential plan of management may result in a 50% reduction in the rate of death from massive hemoptysis, which is otherwise 50% to 100%.

Noncardiogenic pulmonary edema during intrabiliary infusion of mono-octanoin.

Mono-octanoin (glycerol-1-mono-octanoate) is a medium-chain diglyceride used to dissolve gallstones. We describe a patient in whom noncardiogenic pulmonary edema developed during intrabiliary infusion of monooctanoin. The temporal sequence suggests that the drug infusion initiated the lung injury.

Rapid reversal of ergotamine-induced vasospasm.

Peripheral ischemia, secondary to ergotamine tartrate and caffeine suppositories is reported in a 48-year-old female. Lower extremity pre-gangrenous changes were unresponsive to surgical sympathectomy, calcium channel blockade, intra-arterial vasodilators and systemic anticoagulation. A dramatic clinical and radiological reversal of the vasospasm was obtained with intravenous sodium nitroprusside when surgical amputation appeared inevitable.

Cerebrospinal fluid myelin basic protein as a prognostic marker in patients with head injury.

Despite increasing interest in identifying biochemical and serologic markers to judge the severity of closed head injury in comatose patients, clinical variables remain the most readily available methods for assessing prognosis. In a series of 35 severely head-injured comatose patients, the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) level of myelin basic protein (MBP) was analyzed by radioimmunoassay. MBP levels during the first week after injury were significantly correlated with the Glasgow outcome score at 7 days (p less than .005), 3 months (p less than .005), and 6 months (p less than .05) postinjury. Measurement of CSF MBP appears to be a useful laboratory adjunct to clinical assessment, for judging the outcome of severely head-injured patients.