Fruit and vegetable consumption as a preventative strategy for non-communicable diseases.

A high intake of fruit and vegetables (FV) has consistently been associated with a reduced risk of a number of non-communicable diseases. This evidence base is largely from prospective cohort studies, with meta-analyses demonstrating an association between increased FV intake and reduced risk of both CHD and stroke, although the evidence is less certain for cancer and diabetes. Controlled intervention trials examining either clinical or intermediate risk factor endpoints are more scarce. Therefore, evidence that FV consumption reduces the risk of disease is so far largely confined to observational epidemiology, which is hampered by some methodological uncertainties. Although increased FV intake is promoted across all dietary guidelines, national surveys confirm that dietary intakes are suboptimal and are not increasing over time. A range of barriers to increasing FV intake exist, including economic, physical and behavioural barriers that must be considered when exploring potential opportunities to change this, considering the feasibility of different approaches to encourage increased FV consumption. Such interventions must include consideration of context, for example, challenges and uncertainties which exist with the whole food system.

Habitual protein intake, protein distribution patterns and dietary sources in Irish adults with stratification by sex and age.

BACKGROUND: Given the importance of habitual dietary protein intake, distribution patterns and dietary sources in the aetiology of age-related declines of muscle mass and function, the present study examined these factors as a function of sex and age in Irish adults aged 18-90 years comprising The National Adult Nutrition Survey (NANS). METHODS: In total, 1051 (males, n = 523; females, n = 528) undertook a 4-day semi-weighed food diary. Total, body mass relative intake and percentage contribution to total energy intake of dietary protein were determined in addition to protein distribution scores (PDS), as well as the contribution of food groups, animal- and plant-based foods to total protein intake. RESULTS: Total and relative protein intake [mean (SD)] were highest in those aged 18-35 years [96 (3) g day-1 , 1.32 (0.40) g kg-1  day-1 ], with lower protein intakes with increasing age (i.e. in adults aged ≥65 years [82 (22) g, 1.15 (0.34) g kg-1  day-1 , P < 0.001 for both]. Differences in protein intake between age groups were more pronounced in males compared to females. Protein distribution followed a skewed pattern for all age groups [breakfast, 15 (10) g; lunch, 30 (15) g; dinner, 44 (17) g]. Animal-based foods were the dominant protein source within the diet [63% (11%) versus 37% (11%) plant protein, P < 0.001]. CONCLUSIONS: Protein intake and the number of meals reaching the purported threshold for maximising post-prandial anabolism were highest in young adults, and lower with increasing age. For main meals, breakfast provided the lowest quantity of protein across all age categories and may represent an opportunity for improving protein distribution, whereas, in older adults, increasing the number of meals reaching the anabolic threshold regardless of distribution pattern may be more appropriate.

Nutrient intakes and compliance with nutrient recommendations in children aged 1-4 years in Ireland.

BACKGROUND: The early childhood years represent a period of rapid growth and development characterised by unique requirements for energy and individual nutrients. METHODS: The present study uses data from the National Pre-School Nutrition Survey, a nationally representative sample of Irish children (1-4 years) (n = 500), aiming to estimate energy and nutrient intakes across age and compliance with recommendations (UK and European). A 4-day weighed food-record was used to collect dietary data and statistical modelling (National Cancer Institute method) was applied to estimate usual nutrient intakes. RESULTS: Intakes of carbohydrate [48-50% energy (E)], protein (15-16%E), total fat (32-34%E), dietary fibre (2.5 g MJ-1 ), α-linolenic acid (0.45%E) and most micronutrients were in good compliance with recommendations. However, intakes of long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFA) (65-80 mg) were low and significant proportions of children had inadequate intakes (< estimated average requirement) of vitamin D and iron. Small proportions of children with intakes exceeding the upper level for retinol, folic acid, zinc, copper and iodine, are unlikely to give rise to adverse health effects. Mean intakes of free sugars (12%E) and salt (3.1 g day-1 ) exceeded recommendations and increased with age, whereas mean intake of saturated fat (15%E) decreased with age. By the age of 4 years, patterns established for intakes of salt, saturated fat and free sugars were unfavourable and similar to those observed in the diets of older children. CONCLUSIONS: Further research is needed to identify dietary strategies that improve the quality of the diet in young children, particularly in relation to excess of saturated fat, free sugars and salt, as well as inadequacy of iron, vitamin D and LCPUFA.

Patterns of dairy food intake, body composition and markers of metabolic health in Ireland: results from the National Adult Nutrition Survey.

BACKGROUND: Studies examining the association between dairy consumption and metabolic health have shown mixed results. This may be due, in part, to the use of different definitions of dairy, and to single types of dairy foods examined in isolation. OBJECTIVE: The objective of the study was to examine associations between dairy food intake and metabolic health, identify patterns of dairy food consumption and determine whether dairy dietary patterns are associated with outcomes of metabolic health, in a cross-sectional survey. DESIGN: A 4-day food diary was used to assess food and beverage consumption, including dairy (defined as milk, cheese, yogurt, cream and butter) in free-living, healthy Irish adults aged 18-90 years (n=1500). Fasting blood samples (n=897) were collected, and anthropometric measurements taken. Differences in metabolic health markers across patterns and tertiles of dairy consumption were tested via analysis of covariance. Patterns of dairy food consumption, of different fat contents, were identified using cluster analysis. RESULTS: Higher (total) dairy was associated with lower body mass index, %body fat, waist circumference and waist-to-hip ratio (P<0.001), and lower systolic (P=0.02) and diastolic (P<0.001) blood pressure. Similar trends were observed when milk and yogurt intakes were considered separately. Higher cheese consumption was associated with higher C-peptide (P<0.001). Dietary pattern analysis identified three patterns (clusters) of dairy consumption; 'Whole milk', 'Reduced fat milks and yogurt' and 'Butter and cream'. The 'Reduced fat milks and yogurt' cluster had the highest scores on a Healthy Eating Index, and lower-fat and saturated fat intakes, but greater triglyceride levels (P=0.028) and total cholesterol (P=0.015). CONCLUSION: Overall, these results suggest that while milk and yogurt consumption is associated with a favourable body phenotype, the blood lipid profiles are less favourable when eaten as part of a low-fat high-carbohydrate dietary pattern. More research is needed to better understand this association. CONCLUSION: Overall, these results suggest that although milk and yogurt consumption is associated with a favourable body phenotype, the blood lipid profiles are less favourable when eaten as part of a low-fat high-carbohydrate dietary pattern. More research is needed to better understand this association.

Dietary strategies for achieving adequate vitamin D and iron intakes in young children in Ireland.

BACKGROUND: Inadequate intakes of vitamin D and iron have been reported in young children in Ireland. The present study aimed to identify the main foods determining vitamin D and iron intakes and to model the impact of dietary strategies to improve adequacy of these micronutrients in young children. METHODS: The present study is based on the Irish National Pre-School Nutrition Survey (NPNS), which estimated food and nutrient intakes in a representative sample (n = 500) of children (aged 1-4 years) using a 4-day weighed food record. Dietary strategies were modelled using DaDiet© software (Dazult Ltd, Co. Kildare, Republic of Ireland) and the usual intake distribution, prevalence of inadequate intakes and risk of excessive intakes were estimated using the National Cancer Institute method. RESULTS: Fortified foods and nutritional supplements were the key foods influencing the intakes of vitamin D and iron. Adding a 5 µg day-1 vitamin D supplement, fortifying cow's milk (CM) with vitamin D or replacing CM with growing-up milk (GUM) would modestly increase intakes of vitamin D. A combined strategy of fortifying CM with vitamin D or replacing CM with GUM plus a 5 µg day-1 vitamin D supplement would increase mean intakes of vitamin D (from 3.5 µg day-1 at baseline to ≥11 µg day-1 ) and substantially reduce the prevalence of inadequate intakes (from >95% to 12-36%). Fortifying CM with iron or replacing CM with GUM would increase mean intakes of iron (from 7.3 mg day-1 to >10 mg day-1 ), achieving adequate intakes across all ages. CONCLUSIONS: Based on real food consumption data in a representative sample of Irish children, we have shown that through targeted dietary strategies adequate intakes of iron are achievable and intakes of vitamin D could be greatly improved.

A method for assessing dietary intakes of n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids and trans fatty acids in an Irish adult population.

The present study aimed to quantify dietary intakes of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and trans fatty acids (trans FA) in Irish adults using the North/South Ireland Food Consumption Survey (NSIFCS). To update the NSIFCS database, specific approaches were necessary to select accurate data. Published references were the main data source used to update for EPA and DHA (21.7%), while the UK Nutrient Databank was most frequently used to update for trans FA (46.7%). Total EPA and DHA mean daily intake was 275 mg/day whilst trans FA mean daily intake was 0.72% food energy. Younger adults had significantly lower intakes of EPA and DHA than older adults. The present study shows that dietary EPA and DHA intakes in the Irish adult population are below recommendations, especially among the younger population. Conversely, trans FA intakes are within the recommended value of < 2% food energy.

The effects of conjugated linoleic acid supplementation on immune function in healthy volunteers.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the effects of dietary supplementation using two isomeric blends of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) on immune function in healthy human volunteers. DESIGN: Double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled intervention trial. SUBJECTS AND INTERVENTION: A total of 55 healthy volunteers (n=20 males, n=35 females) were randomised into one of three study groups who received 3 g/day of a fatty acid blend containing a 50:50 cis-9, trans-11: trans-10, cis-12 CLA isomer blend (2 g CLA), and 80:20 cis-9, trans-11: trans-10, cis-12 (80:20) CLA isomer blend (1.76 g CLA) or linoleic acid (control, 2 g linoleic acid) for 8 weeks. RESULTS: Supplementation with the 80:20 CLA isomer blend significantly (P< or =0.05) enhanced PHA-induced lymphocyte proliferation. CLA decreased basal interleukin (IL)-2 secretion (P< or =0.01) and increased PHA-induced IL-2 and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF(alpha)) production (P< or =0.01). However, these effects were not solely attributable to CLA as similar results were observed with linoleic acid. CLA supplementation had no significant effect on peripheral blood mononuclear cells IL-4 production, or on serum-soluble intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (sICAM-1) or plasma prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) or leukotreine B4 (LTB4) concentrations. CONCLUSIONS: This study shows that CLA supplementation had a minimal effect on the markers of human immune function. Furthermore, supplementation with CLA had no immunological benefit compared with linoleic acid.

LIPGENE: an EU project to tackle the metabolic syndrome.

LIPGENE is a new 5-year sixth framework EU project involving researchers from 14 EU countries. It will contribute to a reduction in the economic and social burden of the metabolic syndrome through research that will optimise the health impacts of dietary fat change. LIPGENE aims to: account for variation in genotype response to fatty acid modification; enable greater availability of food products that can enhance human health; enhance consumer awareness, and motivate adoption of dietary approaches to disease prevention. A truly integrated programme, LIPGENE incorporates human nutrition, animal nutrition, plant biotechnology, and economic and social/consumer sciences. The human nutrition packages will utilise data from an existing prospective study (SUVIMAX) to identify genotype and dietary interactions as risk factors for the metabolic syndrome. A multi-centre intervention will examine the effects of dietary fat on various risk factors for the metabolic syndrome, while molecular investigations will be supported by mechanistic and functional studies. The British Nutrition Foundation, as dissemination partners for this EU programme, is initiating a wide-reaching programme to disseminate information about the project and its findings. Further details, including lists of upcoming project-related events, are available at www.lipgene.tcd.ie and www.nutrition.org.uk/lipgene.

Effect of dietary supplementation with conjugated linoleic acid on markers of calcium and bone metabolism in healthy adult men.

INTRODUCTION: Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) has been shown to positively influence calcium and bone metabolism in experimental animals and cells in culture, but there are limited human data available. OBJECTIVE: To investigate the effect of CLA supplementation on biomarkers of calcium and bone metabolism in healthy adult males. DESIGN: The study consisted of a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial in which 60 healthy adult males (aged 39-64 y) were randomly assigned to receive daily either 3.0 g CLA isomer blend (50:50% cis-9,trans-11:trans-10,cis-12 isomers) or a palm/bean oil blend (placebo) for 8 weeks. Urine and blood samples were collected at weeks 0 and 8 and were analysed for biomarkers of calcium and bone metabolism. RESULTS: Supplementation with CLA or placebo for 8 weeks had no significant effects on markers of bone formation (serum osteocalcin and bone-specific alkaline phosphatase) or bone resorption (serum C-telopeptide-related fraction of type 1 collagen degradation products, urinary N-telopeptide-related fraction of type 1 collagen degradation products, urinary pyridinoline and deoxypyridinoline), or on serum or urinary calcium levels. Baseline levels of these biochemical parameters were similar in both groups of subjects. While the placebo had no effect, CLA supplementation resulted in a three-fold increase (P<0.00001) in cis-9,trans-11 CLA isomer in total plasma lipids. CONCLUSION: Under the conditions tested in this double-blind, placebo-controlled trial in adult men, a CLA supplement of mixed isomers did not affect markers of calcium or bone metabolism. Further investigation of the effects of CLA on calcium and bone metabolism in other gender- and age-groups is warranted.