Campylobacter jejuni disrupts protective Toll-like receptor 9 signaling in colonic epithelial cells and increases the severity of dextran sulfate sodium-induced colitis in mice.

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is characterized by chronic intestinal inflammation associated with a dysregulated immune response to commensal bacteria in susceptible individuals. The relapse of IBD may occur following an infection with Campylobacter jejuni. Apical epithelial Toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9) activation by bacterial DNA is reported to maintain colonic homeostasis. We investigated whether a prior C. jejuni infection disrupts epithelial TLR9 signaling and increases the severity of disease in a model of mild dextran sulfate sodium (DSS) colitis in mice. In a further attempt to identify mechanisms, T84 monolayers were treated with C. jejuni followed by a TLR9 agonist. Transepithelial resistance (TER) and dextran flux across confluent monolayers were monitored. Immunohistochemistry, Western blotting, and flow cytometry were used to examine TLR9 expression. Mice colonized by C. jejuni lacked any detectable pathology; however, in response to low levels of DSS, mice previously exposed to C. jejuni exhibited significantly reduced weight gain and increased occult blood and histological damage scores. Infected mice treated with DSS also demonstrated a significant reduction in levels of the anti-inflammatory cytokine interleukin-25. In vitro studies indicated that apical application of a TLR9 agonist enhances intestinal epithelial barrier function and that this response is lost in C. jejuni-infected monolayers. Furthermore, infected cells secreted significantly more CXCL8 following the basolateral application of a TLR9 agonist. Surface TLR9 expression was reduced in C. jejuni-infected monolayers subsequently exposed to a TLR9 agonist. In conclusion, infection by C. jejuni disrupts TLR9-induced reinforcement of the intestinal epithelial barrier, and colonization by C. jejuni increases the severity of mild DSS colitis.

Mechanisms of intestinal tight junctional disruption during infection.

Tight junctions are dynamic structures that may undergo structural and functional changes in response to both physiological and pathological circumstances. Several microbial pathogens impair intestinal barrier function by exploiting tight junctions. These pathogens have developed a broad and complex range of strategies to subvert host tight junction barrier function. The purpose of this review is to give an overview of the mechanisms whereby select enteric viruses, bacterial pathogens and parasites modulate intestinal tight junctional structure and function and how these effects may contribute to the development of chronic intestinal disorders.

Proliferative capacity of enterochromaffin cells in guinea-pigs with experimental ileitis.

Enterochromaffin (EC) cells regulate gut motility and secretion in response to luminal stimuli, via the release of serotonin (5-HT). Inflammatory bowel disease and other gastrointestinal disorders are associated with increased numbers of EC cells and 5-HT availability. Our aim was to determine whether proliferation of EC cells contributed to the hyperplasia associated with intestinal inflammation. Ileitis was induced in guinea-pigs by intraluminal injection of 2,4,6-trinitrobenzene sulphonic acid (TNBS). A single pulse of 5-bromo-2'-deoxyuridine (BrdU) was injected 1 or 24 h before the collection of tissue, 6 or 7 days after TNBS treatment. In the controls, the labelling index (percentage of BrdU-labelled EC cells) was less than 1%. Despite a significant increase in EC cells in the inflamed ileum, the labelling index was similar in the TNBS-treated animals to that of controls. An increased occurrence of EC cells in the BrdU-labelled zone accounted for the increase in EC cells in the inflamed ileum. Goblet cell numbers were also significantly increased in the inflamed ileum, indicating that cell hyperplasia was not limited to the enteroendocrine cell lineage. This study demonstrates that a small portion of EC cells retain some proliferative capacity; however, hyperplasia associated with ileitis is not attributable to the increased proliferation of EC cells and is not limited to one cell lineage. Therefore, EC cell hyperplasia most probably occurs at the level of the stem cell or recruitment from the progenitor pool.

Ileitis alters neuronal and enteroendocrine signalling in guinea pig distal colon.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Intestinal inflammation alters neuronal and enteroendocrine signalling, leading to functional adaptations in the inflamed bowel. Human studies have reported functional alterations at sites distant from active inflammation. Our aims were to determine whether neuronal and enteroendocrine signalling are altered in the uninflamed colon during ileitis. METHODS: We used neurophysiological, immunohistochemical, biochemical and Ussing chamber techniques to examine the effect of 2,4,6-trinitrobenzene sulphonic acid (TNBS)-induced ileitis on the properties of submucosal neurones, enteroendocrine cells and epithelial physiology of the distal colon of guinea pigs. RESULTS: Three days after TNBS administration, when inflammation was restricted to the ileum, the properties of colonic enteric neurones were altered. Submucosal AH neurones were hyperexcitable and had reduced after hyperpolarisations. S neurones received larger fast and slow excitatory postsynaptic potentials, due to an increase in non-cholinergic synaptic transmission. Despite the absence of inflammation in the colon, we found increased colonic prostaglandin E(2) content in animals with ileitis. Ileitis also increased the number of colonic 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT)- and GLP-2-immunoreactive enteroendocrine cells. This was accompanied by an increase in stimulated 5-HT release. Functional alterations in epithelial physiology occurred such that basal short circuit current was increased and veratridine-stimulated ion transport was reduced in the colon of animals with ileitis. CONCLUSION: Our data suggest that inflammation at one site in the gut alters the cellular components of enteric reflex circuits in non-inflamed regions in ways similar to those at sites of active inflammation. These changes underlie altered function in non-involved regions during episodes of intestinal inflammation.

Persistent alterations to enteric neural signaling in the guinea pig colon following the resolution of colitis.

Functional changes induced by inflammation persist following recovery from the inflammatory response, but the mechanisms underlying these changes are not well understood. Our aim was to investigate whether the excitability and synaptic properties of submucosal neurons remained altered 8 wk post-trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (TNBS) treatment and to determine whether these changes were accompanied by alterations in secretory function in submucosal preparations voltage clamped in Ussing chambers. Mucosal serotonin (5-HT) release measurements and 5-HT reuptake transporter (SERT) immunohistochemistry were also performed. Eight weeks after TNBS treatment, colonic inflammation resolved, as assessed macroscopically and by myeloperoxidase assay. However, fast excitatory postsynaptic potential (fEPSP) amplitude was significantly increased in submucosal S neurons from previously inflamed colons relative to those in control tissue. In addition, fEPSPs from previously inflamed colons had a hexamethonium-insensitive component that was not evident in age-matched controls. AH neurons were hyperexcitable, had shorter action potential durations, and decreased afterhyperpolarization 8 wk following TNBS adminstration. Neuronally mediated colonic secretory function was significantly reduced after TNBS treatment, although epithelial cell signaling, as measured by responsiveness to both forskolin and bethanecol in the presence of tetrodotoxin, was comparable with control tissue. 5-HT levels and SERT immunoreactivity were comparable to controls 8 wk after the induction of inflammation, but there was an increase in glucagon-like peptide 2-immunoreactive L cells. In conclusion, sustained alterations in enteric neural signaling occur following the resolution of colitis, which are accompanied by functional changes in the absence of active inflammation.

Consequences of Citrobacter rodentium infection on enteroendocrine cells and the enteric nervous system in the mouse colon.

We tested the hypothesis that Citrobacter rodentium infection leads to changes in the mucosal enteroendocrine signalling and the enteric nervous system and that the host's immune response contributes to these changes. Enteroendocrine cells, serotonin (5-HT) reuptake transporter (SERT), 5-HT release, and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) expression were assessed in the colon of infected wild-type or severe combined immunodeficient (SCID) mice. Immunoreactivity for iNOS and neuropeptides were examined in the submucosal and myenteric plexuses. Mice were orogastrically infected with C. rodentium and experiments were conducted during the injury phase (10 days) and the recovery phase (30 days). 5-HT and somatostatin enteroendocrine cells and SERT were significantly reduced 10 days after infection, with numbers returning to control values at 30 days. 5-HT release was increased at 10 days. Changes to the mucosal serotonin signalling system were not observed in SCID mice. iNOS immunoreactivity was increased in the submucosa and mucosa at 10 days and returned to baseline levels by 30 days. No differences were observed in neuropeptide or iNOS immunoreactivity in the enteric plexuses following infection. The host's immune response underlies changes to enteroendocrine cells, SERT expression and 5-HT release in C. rodentium infection. These changes could contribute to disturbances in gut function arising from enteric infection.

Enteroendocrine cells and 5-HT availability are altered in mucosa of guinea pigs with TNBS ileitis.

Enteroendocrine cells act as sensory transducers, releasing 5-HT and numerous peptides that are involved in regulating motility, secretion, and gut sensation. The action of mucosal 5-HT is terminated by a 5-HT reuptake transporter (SERT). In this study, we examined the hypothesis that ileitis leads to changes in enteroendocrine cell populations and mucosal 5-HT availability. Ileitis was induced in guinea pigs by intraluminal injection of 2,4,6-trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid and experiments were conducted 3, 7, and 14 days after treatment. The number of somatostatin, neurotensin, and 5-HT-immunoreactive cells increased at 3 and 7 days of ileitis, respectively, whereas no significant changes in the numbers of cholecystokinin, glucagon-like peptide-2, glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide, and peptide YY-immunoreactive cells were observed. Chemical stimulation of the inflamed mucosa with sodium deoxycholic acid significantly increased 5-HT release compared with basal release. Mechanical stimulation of the mucosa potentiated the effect of the chemical stimuli at day 7. Epithelial SERT immunoreactivity was significantly reduced during the time course of inflammation. Thus changes in enteroendocrine cell populations and 5-HT availability could contribute to the altered motility and secretion associated with intestinal inflammation by disrupting mucosal signaling to enteric nerves involved in peristaltic and secretory reflexes.