Comparison of Trapping Performance Between the Original BG-Sentinel® Trap and BG-Sentinel 2® Trap (1).

Recently, the BG-Sentinel® trap (BGS) trap has been reconfigured for increased durability during harsh field conditions. We evaluated the attractiveness of this redesigned trap, BG-Sentinel 2® (BGS2), and its novel granular lure cartridge system relative to the original trap and lure. Granular lures containing different combinations of lactic acid, ammonia, hexanoic acid, and octenol were also evaluated. Lure cartridges with all components except octenol trapped significantly more Aedes albopictus than lures containing octenol. This new granular lure combination and original BG-Lure® system were paired with BGS and BGS2 traps to compare relative attractiveness of the lures and the traps. All evaluations were conducted under field conditions in a suburban neighborhood in northeastern Florida from July to October 2014. Overall, the average numbers of Ae. albopictus collected by BGS or BGS2 were similar regardless of the lure type (i.e., mesh bag versus granules) (P  =  0.56). The functionality and durability of both trap models are discussed.

Comparison of Indoor Residual Spray Equipment for Malaria Control in Liberia.

We describe and compare a new innovative backpack compressed-air sprayer (JQSX-12) to a Stihl® 450 backpack mist blower and a manually operated compression sprayer for its effectiveness as an alternative operational tool for indoor residual insecticide application to control malaria in Liberia. Advantages and physical characteristics of each sprayer and their spray atomization parameters are discussed.

Assessing Carbon Dioxide and Synthetic Lure-Baited Traps for Dengue and Chikungunya Vector Surveillance (3).

The Aedes mosquito vectors of dengue virus (DENV) and chikungunya virus (CHIKV) are attracted to specific host cues that are not generated by traditional light traps. For this reason multiple companies have designed traps to specifically target those species. Recently the standard trap for DENV and CHIKV vectors, the BG-Sentinel (BGS) trap, has been remodeled to be more durable and better suited for use in harsh field conditions, common during military operations, and relabeled the BG-Sentinel 2 (BGS2). This new trap was evaluated against the standard Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) light trap, Zumba Trap, and BG-Mosquitito Trap to determine relative effectiveness in collecting adult Aedes aegypti and Ae. albopictus. Evaluations were conducted under semifield and field conditions in suburban areas in northeastern Florida from May to August 2014. The BGS2 trap collected more DENV and CHIKV vectors than the standard CDC light trap, Zumba Trap, and BG-Mosquitito Trap, but attracted fewer species, while the BG-Mosquitito Trap attracted the greatest number of mosquito species.

Comparison of BG-Sentinel® Trap and Oviposition Cups for Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus Surveillance in Jacksonville, Florida, USA.

The BG-Sentinel® (BGS) trap and oviposition cups (OCs) have both proven effective in the surveillance of Aedes species. This study aimed to determine which of the 2 traps could best characterize the relative population sizes of Aedes albopictus and Aedes aegypti in an urban section of Jacksonville, FL. Until 1986, Ae. aegypti was considered the dominant container-breeding species in urban northeastern Florida. Since the introduction of Ae. albopictus, Ae. aegypti has become almost completely extirpated. In 2011, a resurgence of Ae. aegypti was detected in the urban areas of Jacksonville; thus this study initially set out to determine the extent of Ae. aegypti reintroduction to the area. We determined that the BGS captured a greater number of adult Ae. aegypti than Ae. albopictus, while OCs did not monitor significantly different numbers of either species, even in areas where the BGS traps suggested a predominance of one species over the other. Both traps were effective at detecting Aedes spp.; however, the BGS proved more diverse by detecting over 20 other species as well. Our results show that in order to accurately determine vectorborne disease threats and the impact of control operations on these 2 species, multiple trapping techniques should be utilized when studying Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus population dynamics.

Swarming mechanisms in the yellow fever mosquito: aggregation pheromones are involved in the mating behavior of Aedes aegypti.

Mosquitoes of various species mate in swarms comprised of tens of thousands of flying males. In this study, we examined Aedes aegypti swarming behavior and identified associated chemical cues. Novel evidence is provided that Ae. aegypti females aggregate by means of olfactory cues, such as aggregation pheromones. Isolation of Ae. aegypti aggregation pheromones was achieved by aeration of confined mosquitoes and collection of associated volatiles by glass filters. The collected volatiles were identified through gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GCMS). Three aggregation pheromones were collected and identified as 2,6,6-trimethylcyclohex-2-ene-1,4-dione (ketoisophorone) (CAS# 1125-21-9, t(R) = 18.75), 2,2,6-trimethylcyclohexane-1,4-dione (the saturated analog of ketoisophorone) (CAS# 20547-99-3, t(R) = 20.05), and 1-(4-ethylphenyl) ethanone (CAS# 937-30-4, t(R) = 24.22). Our biological studies revealed that the identified compounds stimulated mosquito behavior under laboratory conditions. The mechanism of mosquito swarm formation is discussed in light of our behavioral study findings. A preliminary field trial demonstrated the potential application of the isolated aggregation pheromones in controlling Ae. aegypti.

Taming a tiger in the city: comparison of motorized backpack applications and source reduction against the Asian tiger mosquito, Aedes albopictus.

We evaluated 2 strategies to manage Aedes albopictus: 1) motorized backpack applications and 2) source reduction (coupled with hand-applied applications of larvicide). Backpack applications used a water-dispersible granular formulation (VectoBac WDG) of Bacillus thuringiensis var. israelensis (Bti), whereas source reduction used granular formulations of the insect growth regulator methoprene (Altosid) combined with a monomolecular film surfactant (Agnique). Six subplots (total 8.02 ha) were selected for backpack applications, source reduction, and control groups. The experiments were blind with applications conducted randomly and independently. Efficacy was determined through placement of bioassay cups with larvae within experimental plots 1 day before treatment. Backpack applications resulted in 76% (+/- 8.2% SE) and source reduction resulted in 92% (+/- 4.1% SE) larval mortality. Backpack applications required 50 times less labor than source reduction (0.25 versus 0.005 ha/h). The cost of backpack applications, including labor, was $159.88/ha, compared with $659.65/ha for source reduction. Although overall efficacy was slightly lower, motorized backpack applications of Bti were more efficient and cost-effective than source reduction methods to control Ae. albopictus in urban settings at the community level.

A mobile app for military operational entomology pesticide applications.

Multiple field studies conducted for the Deployed War-Fighter Protection (DWFP) research program have generated more than 80 specific guidance points for innovative combinations of pesticide application equipment, pesticide formulations, and application techniques for aerosol and residual pesticide treatments in 6 ecological regions against a range of mosquito, sand fly, and filth fly nuisance and disease-vector threats. To synthesize and operationalize these DWFP field and laboratory efficacy data we developed an interactive iOS and Android mobile software application, the Pesticide App, consisting of specific pesticide application guidance organized by environment and target insect vector species.

Field assessment of yeast- and oxalic Acid-generated carbon dioxide for mosquito surveillance.

Carbon dioxide (CO2) sources improve the efficacy of mosquito traps. However, traditional CO2 sources (dry ice or compressed gas) may be difficult to acquire for vector surveillance during military contingency operations. For this reason, a new and convenient source of CO2 is required. Two novel CO2 generators were evaluated in order to address this capability gap: 1) an electrolyzer that converts solid oxalic acid into CO2 gas, and 2) CO2 produced by yeast as it metabolizes sugar. The flow rate and CO2 concentration produced by each generator were measured, and each generator's ability to attract mosquitoes to BG-Sentinel™ traps during day surveillance and to Centers for Disease Control and Prevention light traps with incandescent bulbs during night surveillance was compared to dry ice and compressed gas in Jacksonville, FL. The electrolyzed oxalic acid only slightly increased the number of mosquitoes captured compared to unbaited traps. Based on the modest increase in mosquito collection for traps paired with the oxalic acid, it is not a suitable stand-in for either of the 2 traditional CO2 sources. Conversely, the yeast-generated CO2 resulted in collections with mosquito abundance and species richness more closely resembling those of the traditional CO2 sources, despite achieving a lower CO2 flow rate. Therefore, if dry ice or compressed gas cannot be acquired for vector surveillance, yeast-generated CO2 can significantly improve trap capability.

Ecological and control techniques for sand flies (Diptera: Psychodidae) associated with rodent reservoirs of leishmaniasis.

BACKGROUND: Leishmaniasis remains a global health problem because of the substantial holes that remain in our understanding of sand fly ecology and the failure of traditional vector control methods. The specific larval food source is unknown for all but a few sand fly species, and this is particularly true for the vectors of Leishmania parasites. We provide methods and materials that could be used to understand, and ultimately break, the transmission cycle of zoonotic cutaneous leishmaniasis. METHODS AND FINDINGS: We demonstrated in laboratory studies that analysis of the stable carbon and nitrogen isotopes found naturally in plant and animal tissues was highly effective for linking adult sand flies with their larval diet, without having to locate or capture the sand fly larvae themselves. In a field trial, we also demonstrated using this technique that half of captured adult sand flies had fed as larvae on rodent feces. Through the identification of rodent feces as a sand fly larval habitat, we now know that rodent baits containing insecticides that have been shown in previous studies to pass into the rodents' feces and kill sand fly larvae also could play a future role in sand fly control. In a second study we showed that rubidium incorporated into rodent baits could be used to demonstrate the level of bloodfeeding by sand flies on baited rodents, and that the elimination of sand flies that feed on rodents can be achieved using baits containing an insecticide that circulates in the blood of baited rodents. CONCLUSIONS: Combined, the techniques described could help to identify larval food sources of other important vectors of the protozoa that cause visceral or dermal leishmaniasis. Unveiling aspects of the life cycles of sand flies that could be targeted with insecticides would guide future sand fly control programs for prevention of leishmaniasis.

Larval mosquito habitat utilization and community dynamics of Aedes albopictus and Aedes japonicus (Diptera: Culicidae).

Aedes albopictus (Skuse) and Ae. japonicus (Theobald) are important container-inhabiting mosquitoes that transmit disease agents, outcompete native species, and continue to expand their range in the United States. Both species deposit eggs in natural and artificial containers and thrive in peridomestic environments. The goal of our study was to examine the types and characteristics of containers that are most productive for these species in the northeastern United States. In total, 306 containers were sampled in urban, suburban, and rural areas of New Jersey. Multiple biotic and abiotic factors were recorded in an attempt to identify variables associated with the productivity of each species. Based on pupal abundance and density of container types, results showed that tires, trash cans, and planter dishes were the most important containers for Ae. albopictus, while planter dishes were the most important containers for Ae. japonicus. Container color (black and gray), material (rubber), and type (tires) were correlated with species presence for Ae. albopictus and Ae. japonicus. These factors may play a role in the selection of oviposition sites by female mosquitoes or in the survival of their progeny. Differences in species composition and abundance were detected between areas classified as urban, suburban, and rural. In urban and suburban areas, Ae. albopictus was more abundant in container habitats than Ae. japonicus; however, Ae. japonicus was more abundant in rural areas, and when water temperatures were below 14 degrees C. Our results suggest many variables can influence the presence of Ae. albopictus and Ae. japonicus in container habitats in northeastern United States.

Arthropod Surveillance Programs: Basic Components, Strategies, and Analysis.

Effective entomological surveillance planning stresses a careful consideration of methodology, trapping technologies, and analysis techniques. Herein, the basic principles and technological components of arthropod surveillance plans are described, as promoted in the symposium "Advancements in arthropod monitoring technology, techniques, and analysis" presented at the 58th annual meeting of the Entomological Society of America in San Diego, CA. Interdisciplinary examples of arthropod monitoring for urban, medical, and veterinary applications are reviewed. Arthropod surveillance consists of the three components: 1) sampling method, 2) trap technology, and 3) analysis technique. A sampling method consists of selecting the best device or collection technique for a specific location and sampling at the proper spatial distribution, optimal duration, and frequency to achieve the surveillance objective. Optimized sampling methods are discussed for several mosquito species (Diptera: Culicidae) and ticks (Acari: Ixodidae). The advantages and limitations of novel terrestrial and aerial insect traps, artificial pheromones and kairomones are presented for the capture of red flour beetle (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae), small hive beetle (Coleoptera: Nitidulidae), bed bugs (Hemiptera: Cimicidae), and Culicoides (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) respectively. After sampling, extrapolating real world population numbers from trap capture data are possible with the appropriate analysis techniques. Examples of this extrapolation and action thresholds are given for termites (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) and red flour beetles.

Efficacy of ovitrap colors and patterns for attracting Aedes albopictus at suburban field sites in north-central Florida.

We sought to visually enhance the attractiveness of a standard black ovitrap routinely used in surveillance of the Asian tiger mosquito, Aedes albopictus, and now being used as lethal ovitraps in Ae. aegypti dengue control programs. Black plastic drinking cups (ovitraps) were visually altered to offer field populations of gravid female Ae. albopictus 6 different oviposition site choices. Trials were conducted at 3 field locations in Gainesville, Orange Park, and Jacksonville, FL, during July-August 2009. A black glossy cup served as the control and was tested against 5 cup choices consisting of white, blue, orange, or black-and-white contrasting patterns (checkered or vertically striped). Means (SE) of eggs collected over 6 wk for each choice were: black 122.53 (9.63) > blue 116.74 (10.74) > checkered 101.84 (9.53) > orange 97.15 (7.95) > striped 84.62 (8.17) > white 81.84 (8.74). Black ovitraps outperformed competing colored and contrasting patterned ovicups with respect to choice from gravid Ae. albopictus seeking artificial oviposition sites.

Sticky bottle traps: a simple and effective method for collecting adult phlebotomine sand flies from rodent burrows in a Leishmania-endemic region of Egypt.

We describe a simple, economic, and effective method for constructing sticky bottle traps that can be used to capture adult sand flies from rodent burrows. Although sand fly surveillance activities often employ light- or CO2-baited traps, sticky papers secured to a post or placed on the ground can also be used. However, in arid environments, sand and other debris often collect on the sticky surface, reducing trap effectiveness, capacity, and a means for rapid discrimination and enumeration of adult specimens. Herein, a procedure for constructing sticky bottle traps is provided, as well as preliminary results from a recent sand fly field survey utilizing this device.

Utilizing Auto-Montage technology for identifying field-collected container-inhabiting mosquito eggs.

We describe the methodology used to take images of the eggs of 3 container-breeding mosquito species recovered from ovitraps in north-central Florida using the Auto-Montage software package. This software allows for high-resolution imagery, thereby providing a new tool for mosquito egg identification. Images, as well as a brief comparison of the mosquito eggs using previously described literature, are provided.