Dialysis and driving: an anonymous survey of patients receiving dialysis for end-stage kidney disease.

BACKGROUND: Driving is a complex task requiring multiple cognitive domains and the musculoskeletal system. Cognitive dysfunction is associated with driving impairment. Dialysis patients are known to have a high prevalence of cognitive impairment and other comorbidities, and may be at risk of driving impairment. No Australian guidelines address driving safety in dialysis patients. AIMS: To estimate the proportion of dialysis patients who were driving and those at risk of driving impairment, and to investigate the agreement between objective and subjective markers of risk. METHODS: This single-centre study involved dialysis patients voluntarily completing two questionnaires relating to risk of driving impairment; the first questionnaire focussed on objective markers, and the second questionnaire focussed on subjective markers. Risk of driving impairment was established using pre-determined criteria, and the agreement between objective and subjective markers was estimated using Cohen kappa. RESULTS: A total of 44.8% (99/221) of patients participated; 76.8% (76/99) of participants were driving, and 76.3% (58/76) of drivers were at risk of driving impairment. Factors associated with at-risk driving included post dialysis dizziness, leg weakness or numbness, falling asleep while driving and hypoglycaemia. Sixteen patients reported collisions since commencing dialysis. The questionnaires displayed slight agreement (Cohen kappa = 0.20) between objective and subjective markers. CONCLUSIONS: Dialysis patients are at risk of driving impairment based on self-reported questionnaire responses. Discrepancies between patients' perceptions and objective markers were apparent. Further research into appropriate risk assessments, as well as development of guidelines to aid in determining driving safety in dialysis patients, is needed.

Driving with cardiac devices in Australia. Does a review of recent evidence prompt a change in guidelines?

Australian Driving Guidelines for patients with pacemakers and implanted cardioverter defibrillators are in line with many around the world, with some minor differences. Some aspects of these guidelines lack contemporary evidence in key decision-making areas and make broad recommendations regarding groups with heterogeneous populations. In addition, more recent studies suggest lower rates of adverse events in some patients with these devices than previously thought. Through a systematic literature review, along with discussion of current guidelines, we combine new evidence with well established risk assessment tools to ask the following questions: (i) Given the heterogeneity of patient risk within the defibrillator population, should guidelines allow for further individualisation of risk and subsequent licensing restrictions?; and (ii) Could some patients with primary prevention automated cardioverter defibrillators be able to hold a commercial driving licence?

Sudden natural death behind the wheel: Review of driver deaths and fitness to drive assessment history in Victoria, Australia 2012-2013.

This study reviews the circumstances and medical causes of death of motor vehicle drivers who died in circumstances of sudden illness whilst behind the wheel in Victoria, Australia 2012-13. The driver's fitness to drive assessment history was also examined to identify prevention opportunities. Deaths included in the study were those referred to a panel responsible for determining whether the driver fatality should be included in the official road toll, where prior doubt exists. A research team comprising of forensic physicians examined the case file of each death involving sudden illness. Forty-five driver deaths during the two-year period were reviewed. Ischaemic heart disease was the most common cause of death. Over 80% of drivers were male with a median age of 64 years. While limited medical history was available, significantly impacting study analysis, findings identified minimal opportunity to improve the fitness to drive review process.

Self-reported violations, errors and lapses for older drivers: Measuring the change in frequency of aberrant driving behaviours across five time-points.

The current study aimed to: 1. to confirm the 21-item, three-factor Driver Behaviour Questionnaire (DBQ) structure suggested by Koppel et al. (2018) within an independent sample of Canadian older drivers; 2. to examine whether the structure of the DBQ remained stable over a four-year period; 3. to conduct a latent growth analysis to determine whether older drivers' DBQ scores changed across time. Five hundred and sixty Canadian older drivers (males = 61.3%) from the Candrive/Ozcandrive longitudinal study completed the DBQ yearly for four years across five time-points that were approximately 12 months apart. In Year 1, the average age of the older drivers was 76.0 years (SD = 4.5 years; Range = 70-92 years). Findings from the study support the 21-item, three-factor DBQ structure suggested by Koppel and colleagues for an Australian sample of older drivers as being acceptable in an independent sample of Canadian older drivers. In addition, Canadian older drivers' responses to this version of the DBQ were stable across the five time-points. More specifically, there was very little change in older drivers' self-reported violations, and no significant change for self-reported errors or lapses. The findings from the current study add further support for this version of the DBQ as being a suitable tool for examining self-reported aberrant driving behaviours in older drivers. Future research should investigate the relationship between older drivers' self-reported aberrant driving behaviours and their performance on functional measures, their responses to other driving-related abilities and practice scales and/or questionnaires, as well their usual (or naturalistic) driving practices and/or performance on on-road driving tasks.

The epidemiology of sexual assault of older female nursing home residents, in Victoria Australia, between 2000 and 2015.

Sexual assault is the least acknowledged, detected, and reported type of assault against nursing home residents. Nursing home staff are responsible for reporting suspected allegations to the police, who will contact a clinical forensic examiner to conduct a forensic medical examination. This study examined the epidemiology of sexual assaults of older women (aged 65 years and older) residing in nursing homes in Victoria, Australia, between 2000 and 2015, whose alleged incidents were referred to a clinical forensic examiner for a forensic medical examination. A retrospective analysis of alleged sexual assaults reported to the Clinical Forensic Medicine Unit at the Victorian Institute of Forensic Medicine between 1 January 2000 and 31 December 2015 was conducted. The study identified 28 forensic medical examinations performed for alleged sexual assault. The alleged victims frequently had cognitive impairments; injuries were infrequent; and alleged victims were cooperative. The forensic medical examiner responded within 72 h of reporting; and frequently noted limitations to physical examinations of the alleged victim. The actual number of sexual assaults during this period may be masked by under-reporting and, lack of identification by nursing home staff. There are many unresolved issues including: incidence, levels of reporting, nature of investigations, responses required to assist the victim, and the interventions needed to prevent sexual assault. Better data is vital. This data should be standardized, validated, reliable, and gathered prospectively across Australia and internationally.

Sexual Assault Examination of the Unconscious Patient: A Legal, Ethical and Professional Grey-area for the Forensic Physician.

When treating unconscious patients believed to have been victims of sexual assault, forensic physicians must decide whether to conduct physical examinations in order to collect evidence while patients are unconscious and cannot consent. The choice is urgent: potential evidence may be lost before the patient regains the ability to consent. The physician's choice affects not only the patient's bodily integrity, but also their ability to pursue criminal and potentially civil justice remedies if they were assaulted. This article bases its discussion on one such real-life situation. It first examines ethical models relevant to deciding whether to take evidence and finds that no one approach produces morally satisfactory outcomes in every case. It then examines the legal framework guiding these decisions, finding that while collecting evidence without consent may well be permissible under New South Wales (NSW) legislation, relevant guidelines disallow it, placing physicians in a legal grey-area. The article concludes with practical recommendations to address these ethical, professional and legal challenges.

Characteristics of motor vehicle crashes associated with seizure: Car crash semiology.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the characteristics of seizure-related vehicle crashes (SRC). METHOD: Using a nested case-control design, we identified and compared cases of SRC involving confirmed epilepsy patients with 137,126 non-seizure-related crash controls (NSRC) in the Australian state of Victoria. SRC were identified from approximately 20,000 epileptologist medical records by cross-referencing this source with the Victorian Police Traffic Incident database and the Road Crash Information System Database (RCISD). RESULTS: Seventy-one SRC involving 62 patients with epilepsy were identified. Thirty-seven SRC resulted in injury and could be identified in the RCISD and compared to NSRC. Seizure-related crashes typically involved a single vehicle (57% vs 29%, p < 0.001) carrying a sole occupant (95% vs 48%, p = 0.001). Most SRC began with an "out of control movement" (51% vs 10%, p < 0.001) and the subsequent collision type differed significantly between the groups (p < 0.001). The majority of SRC were a "collision with a fixed object" (54% vs 17%, p < 0.001) involving an "off path on straight" mechanism (48% vs 10%, p < 0.001). Regarding all 71 SRC, generalized as compared with focal epilepsy crashes involved younger drivers (p < 0.001), seizure-provoking factors (p = 0.033), and occurred earlier in the day (p = 0.004). CONCLUSIONS: Given the distinct SRC features, we propose that clinicians, crash investigators, and driver licensing authorities incorporate collision characteristics into the overall assessment of suspected SRC. Further research should examine restricting driving immediately after risk periods as a harm-minimization strategy.

Electric fences and accidental death.

Deaths which occur in association with agricultural electric fences are very rare. In fact, electric fences have undoubtedly saved numerous human and animal lives by safely and reliably keeping livestock confined to their fields and enclosures and thus preventing motor vehicle incidents when livestock get onto roads and highways. Accidental and intentional human contact with electric fences occurs regularly and causes little more than transient discomfort, however, on exceptional occasions, contact with electric fences appears to be directly related to the death of the individual. The precise pathophysiological cause of these deaths is unclear. We present two cases of deaths associated with electric fences, discuss the possible pathophysiological mechanisms in these cases, and suggest a universal approach to the medico-legal investigation and documentation of these deaths.

Apparent elevated blood alcohol due to laboratory artefact: A potential cause of misinterpretation.

Of all the drugs of forensic interest, none are more common or pervasive than alcohol. A thorough understanding of all aspects of alcohol pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics is essential for any clinical forensic practitioner. In rare cases interpretation of blood alcohol results may require questions to be asked about laboratory analysis. We present a case where an apparently positive blood alcohol result could have resulted in an unnecessary avenue of coronial investigation of a child death.

Medical review licensing outcomes in drivers with visual field loss in Victoria, Australia.

BACKGROUND: Good vision is essential for safe driving and studies have associated visual impairment with an increased crash risk. Currently, there is little information about the medical review of drivers with visual field loss. This study examines the prevalence of visual field loss among drivers referred for medical review in one Australian jurisdiction and investigates factors associated with licence outcome in this group. METHODS: A random sample of 10,000 (31.25 per cent) medical review cases was extracted for analysis from the Victorian licensing authority. Files were screened for the presence of six visual field-related medical conditions. Data were captured on a range of variables, including referral source, age, gender, health status, crash history and licence outcome. Prevalence analyses were univariate and descriptive. Logistic regression was used to assess factors associated with licence outcomes in the visual field loss group. RESULTS: Approximately 1.9 per cent of the 10,000 medical review cases screened had a visual field loss condition identified (n = 194). Among the visual field loss group, 57.2 per cent were permitted to continue driving (conditional/unconditional licence). Primary referral sources were the police, self-referrals and general medical practitioners. Key factors associated with licence test outcomes were visual field condition, age group, crash involvement and referral to the Driver Licensing Authority's Medical Advisors. Those who were younger had a crash involvement triggering referral and those who were referred to the Medical Advisors were more likely to have a positive licensing outcome. CONCLUSION: The evidence base for making licensing decisions is complicated by the variable causes, patterns, progressions and measuring technologies for visual field loss. This study highlighted that the involvement of an expert medical advisory service in Victoria resulted in an increased likelihood that drivers with visual field loss will be allowed to continue driving. Further research is warranted to explore issues relating to severity of field loss and the capacity for compensation.

Residual cannabis levels in blood, urine and oral fluid following heavy cannabis use.

An understanding of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) kinetics and residual levels after cannabis use is essential in interpreting toxicology tests in body fluids from live subjects, particularly when used in forensic settings for drug abuse, traffic and interpersonal violence cases. However the current literature is largely based on laboratory studies using controlled cannabis dosages in experienced users, with limited research investigating the kinetics of residual THC concentrations in regular high dose cannabis users. Twenty-one dependent cannabis users were recruited at admission to two residential detoxification units in Melbourne, Australia. After being provided with information about, and consenting to, the study, subjects volunteered to provide once-daily blood, urine and oral fluid (saliva) samples for seven consecutive days following admission, involving cessation and abstinence from all cannabis use. Blood and oral fluid specimens were analysed for THC and urine specimens for the metabolite THC-COOH. In some subjects THC was detectable in blood for at least 7 days and oral fluid specimens were positive for THC up to 78 h after admission to the unit. Urinary THC-COOH concentrations exceeded 1000 ng/mL for some subjects 129 h after last use. The presented blood THC levels are higher and persist longer in some individuals than previously described, our understanding and interpretation of THC levels in long term heavy cannabis users may need to be reconsidered.

The use of interpreters in medical settings and forensic medical examinations in Australia: the relationship between medicine and linguistics.

Medical examinations are dependent on combining communication with professional competence. In the development of a global multicultural community with the use of multiple languages, doctors have become increasingly dependent on language facilitation such as interpreting and translation. Despite professional studies, the use of language facilitation with its associated problems has not been fully explored in graduate and post-graduate medical and forensic medical training. There may still be some lack of reciprocal understanding between the medical and linguistic fields, their ethics, obligations and limits although both fields and their ethical frameworks are closer related than might be expected. This article is a discussion that aims at providing a basic understanding of guidelines as to the origin and appropriate use of language interpretation in medical and forensic medical examinations.

Epilepsy and driving: current status of research.

In many parts of the world, licensing guidelines state that drivers with medical conditions such as epilepsy are restricted or prohibited from driving. These guidelines are sometimes subjective and not strongly evidence-based, rendering the task of assessing fitness to drive a complex one. Determining fitness to drive is not only essential for maintaining the safety of individual drivers but has implications for the community at large. It is therefore important to review the current state of knowledge regarding epilepsy and driving in order to aid health professionals required to assess fitness to drive and to guide future research directions. This review outlines the functional impairments related to epilepsy and driving, treatment and management issues, motor vehicle crash risk for drivers with epilepsy, estimates of predicted seizure occurrence and concludes with a discussion of the international licensing guidelines and relevant legal issues. More comprehensive research, including investigation into the effects of antiepileptic medication on driving, could aid in the development of policies and guidelines for assessing fitness to drive.

Development of a standardised Occupational Therapy--Driver Off-Road Assessment Battery to assess older and/or functionally impaired drivers.

INTRODUCTION: Research has been conducted over several years to develop a new off-road assessment battery referred to as the Occupational Therapy - Driver Off-Road Assessment Battery. This article documents the development of the Battery, and provides preliminary research evidence to support its content and predictive validity. METHODS: Literature reviews and a focus group with nine driver assessor occupational therapists were undertaken, as well as data collection using the Occupational Therapy - Driver Off-Road Assessment Battery with 246 clients. A Classification and Regression Tree model was constructed to ascertain the predictive validity of the Battery, with fitness-to-drive as the outcome. RESULTS: Twenty-one physical, 13 sensory and seven assessments of cognition/perception were identified as being reflective of the skills required for driving. Following rating of their psychometric properties, the best assessments were presented to focus group members. The driver assessors supported the inclusion of several assessments and encouraged the development of new assessments. A draft version of the Occupational Therapy - Driver Off-Road Assessment Battery was tested and found to have excellent predictive validity for client on-road performance of 82.6%. The Classification and Regression Tree model showed that client performance on tests included in the Battery should be used together, rather than in isolation, to support fitness-to-drive recommendations. CONCLUSION: This research identified the most suitable physical, sensory and cognitive assessments to include in the Occupational Therapy - Driver Off-Road Assessment Battery, and provided support for its validity. The development of this standardised battery assists driver assessors to accurately and consistently assess and report the off-road driving capacity of clients.

Evaluating the use of prolonged video-EEG monitoring to assess future seizure risk and fitness to drive.

OBJECTIVE: The use of prolonged video-electroencephalography monitoring (VEM), rather than routine electroencephalography (EEG), in predicting the risk of future seizures in patients with epilepsy is not well studied. A longer period of monitoring could be more likely to capture either ictal or interictal epileptiform activity. This information may better assist clinical decision making on driving fitness. The goal of this study was to evaluate the use of 6-hour prolonged VEM versus routine EEG in the assessment of future seizure risk and driving fitness for patients with epilepsy. METHODS: Data on consecutive patients referred for 6-hour prolonged VEM were retrospectively analyzed. Criteria were developed that combined EEG findings and clinical factors to determine each patient's fitness to drive. Seizure relapse outcomes were followed over 2 years. RESULTS: Of 34 patients, 27 were considered safe to drive following prolonged VEM. Five (19%) of these 27 patients had seizure relapses; all had an obvious precipitant(s) identified including sleep deprivation, excessive alcohol, and missed medication doses. Seven of the 34 patients were deemed unsafe to drive. All seven (100%) had seizure relapses, with unprovoked seizures in four patients. The relative risk of seizure in patients deemed unfit to drive was 5.4 (P=0.00015). If only the routine EEG component of the recordings were used with the criteria, the relative risk would have been 3.4 (P=0.037), with nearly double the number of active drivers having seizures. The majority of patients (76%) in this study had idiopathic generalized epilepsy, with a relative seizure risk of 4.0 (P=0.002) for patients deemed unfit to drive in this subgroup. The focal epilepsy group was small (eight patients) and did not quite achieve statistical significance. CONCLUSION: Six-hour VEM improves the evaluation of driving fitness by better predicting the risk of subsequent seizure relapse for idiopathic generalized epilepsy and possibly focal epilepsy. Prolonged monitoring is superior to routine EEG. Ongoing avoidance of seizure-provoking factors remains paramount to driving safety.

Validation of a test of road law and road craft knowledge with older or functionally impaired drivers.

OBJECTIVE: The number of functionally impaired drivers being assessed is increasing the urgency to develop a standardized off-road driver assessment battery. We examined the validity of the Road Law and Road Craft Test (RLRCT) and a version of the Melbourne Slide Test to determine whether they should be included in the Occupational Therapy Driver Off-Road Assessment (OT-DORA) battery, which is under development. METHOD: We conducted a file audit of 118 data sets with individual item scores for the RLRCT and Melbourne Slide Test. RESULTS: The RLRCT test with one item removed provides clinicians with a valid indication of clients' off-road driving skills. The Melbourne Slide Test added no new information over that provided by the RLRCT and can be excluded from the battery. CONCLUSION: The revised 14-item RLRCT should be included in the OT-DORA battery. Further research is required to develop the OT-DORA battery as a valid and reliable measure of off-road driver skill.

Implications of vision testing for older driver licensing.

OBJECTIVES: A range of medical conditions can lead to visual impairments either through effects on the eye or the visual pathways and brain. The prevalence of visual impairment increases with age. Furthermore, research evidence has shown that aging is related to a number of other processes that can lead to changes in cognitive functioning and sensory perception that may adversely affect driving (Marottoli and Drickamer, 1993; Stelmach and Nahom, 1992). This combination of factors is thought to contribute to older driver crash risk (Hakamies-Blomqvist, 1993; Stutts et al., 1998). Licensing authorities are the primary entity responsible for monitoring the medical fitness of their license holders. While it is important for licensing bodies to identify drivers who have conditions that place them at a heightened risk for crashes, at the same time, they should not unfairly restrict the mobility of disabled or aging drivers. Therefore, it is important that the licensing criteria for visual fitness to drive are based on scientific evidence establishing their effectiveness and predictive value for poor driving performance and unacceptable crash risk. The aim of this paper is to assess whether current licensing guidelines are consistent with the available scientific evidence on the effect of visual impairment on driving with a specific focus on older drivers. METHODS: This article describes current licensing guidelines for vision from selected Western jurisdictions and reviews the available scientific evidence on visual impairment and driving performance on which such licensing decisions are based. RESULTS: The findings of the review indicate that the predictive values of the vision tests commonly used for licensing decisions by the selected authorities are inconclusive. DISCUSSION: The functional attributes of vision currently assessed for licensing do not adequately explain unsafe driving performance. Differences were observed across vision requirements for the selected jurisdictions, possibly reflecting the equivocal and inconclusive findings linking specific visual functions and impairment with crash risk. Setting benchmarks or performance thresholds on selected visual tests may be problematic for older drivers in particular, who are most vulnerable to underperforming. Driving involves a complex set of skills, and it is proposed that decisions about vision for safe driving need to be considered in the context of the driver's overall health and other functional abilities.