Money, chores and emotional support: Kenyan and Zambian fathers' perceptions of male partner involvement in maternal and infant health within the context of HIV.

In sub-Saharan Africa, involving male partners in the prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV improves maternal and infant outcomes. Male involvement is typically conceptualised as male partners attending antenatal care, which is difficult for many men. Little is known about how men view their involvement in family health within the context of HIV, particularly outside of clinic attendance. Through interviews with 35 male partners of pregnant or postpartum women living with HIV in Kenya and Zambia, this study elicited perceptions of male involvement in maternal and infant health in families affected by HIV. Men supported the importance of clinic attendance but reported conflicts with the need to work and fulfil their role as the family's financial provider. Providing money for necessities was deemed more critical for their family's health than clinic attendance. Men's involvement was conveyed through various other supportive actions, including helping with household chores and providing emotional support (showing love and reducing women's stress). Future strategies to promote male partner involvement in the prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV and maternal and child health should build upon the actions men view as most meaningful to promote their family's health within their real-world life circumstances and cultural context, particularly their role as financial providers.

Effects of behavioural interventions on postpartum retention and adherence among women with HIV on lifelong ART: the results of a cluster randomized trial in Kenya (the MOTIVATE trial).

INTRODUCTION: Retention in HIV care and adherence to antiretroviral therapy (ART) during pregnancy and postpartum for women living with HIV (WLWH) are necessary to optimize health outcomes for women and infants. The objective of this study was to evaluate the impact of two evidenced-based behavioural interventions on postpartum adherence and retention in WLWH in Kenya. METHODS: The Mother-Infant Visit Adherence and Treatment Engagement (MOTIVATE) study was a cluster-randomized trial enrolling pregnant WLWH from December 2015 to August 2017. Twenty-four health facilities in southwestern Kenya were randomized to: (1) standard care (control), (2) text-messaging, (3) community-based mentor mothers (cMM) or (4) text-messaging and cMM. Primary outcomes included retention in care and ART adherence at 12 months postpartum. Analyses utilized generalized estimating equations and competing risks regression. Per-protocol analyses examined differences in postpartum retention for women with high versus low levels of exposure to the interventions. RESULTS: We enrolled 1331 pregnant WLWH (mean age 28 years). At 12 months postpartum, 1140 (85.6%) women were retained in care, 96 women (7.2%) were lost-to-follow-up (LTFU) and 95 (7.1%) were discontinued from the study. In intention-to-treat analyses, the relative risk of being retained at 12-months postpartum was not significantly higher in the intervention arms versus the control arm. In time-to-event analysis, the cMM and text arm had significantly lower rates of LTFU (hazard ratio 0.44, p = 0.019). In per-protocol analysis, the relative risk of 12-month postpartum retention was 24-29% higher for women receiving at least 80% of the expected intervention compared to the control arm; text message only risk ratio (RR) 1.24 (95% confidence interval [CI] 1.16-1.32, p<0.001), cMM only RR 1.29 (95% CI 1.21-1.37, p<0.001) and cMM plus text RR 1.29 (1.21-1.37, p<0.001). Women LTFU were younger (p<0.001), less likely to be married (p<0.001) and more likely to be newly diagnosed with HIV during pregnancy (p<0.001). Self-reported ART adherence did not vary by study arm. CONCLUSIONS: Behavioural interventions using peer support and text messages did not appear to improve 12-month postpartum retention and adherence in intention-to-treat analyses. Higher levels of exposure to the interventions may be necessary to achieve the desired effects.

Tenofovir Diphosphate in Dried Blood Spots in Pregnant and Postpartum Women With HIV in Kenya: A Novel Approach to Measuring Peripartum Adherence.

BACKGROUND: Adherence to antiretroviral therapy (ART) among pregnant and postpartum women with HIV (PWLWH) is critical to promote maternal health and prevent HIV transmission. Tenofovir diphosphate (TFV-DP) in dried blood spots (DBS) is an objective assessment of cumulative ART adherence that has not been fully assessed in PWLWH. SETTING: Southwestern Kenya. METHODS: PWLWH receiving tenofovir disoproxil fumarate-based ART from 24 health facilities provided DBS samples at 3 time points [pregnancy/early postpartum (PP), 6 months PP, and 9-12 months PP]. Thresholds for daily adherence were defined as TFV-DP in DBS ≥650 fmol/punch in pregnancy and ≥950 PP. Descriptive analysis is presented. Cluster adjusted χ2 and t-tests were used to test for association with clinical and demographic factors. RESULTS: A total of 419 DBS samples were collected from 150 PWLWH. Median TFV-DP in DBS was lowest, 552 fmol/punch [interquartile range (IQR), 395-759] in pregnancy and declined over time [914 (IQR, 644-1176) fmol/punch; early PP; 838 (IQR, 613-1063) fmol/punch 6 months PP; and 785 (IQR, 510-1009) fmol/punch 9-12 months; P < 0.001]. Only 42% of samples in pregnancy and 38.5% of samples in PP met thresholds for daily adherence. Clinical or demographic factors were not associated with suboptimal adherence levels. CONCLUSION: Cumulative ART exposure in PWLWH, quantified by TFV-DP in DBS, demonstrated a stepwise decrease (ie, adherence) PP. Most women demonstrated less than daily adherence throughout the peripartum period. Use of TFV-DP in DBS as a measure of cumulative ART adherence could help optimize health outcomes in PWLWH and their infants.

Experiences, perceptions and potential impact of community-based mentor mothers supporting pregnant and postpartum women with HIV in Kenya: a mixed-methods study.

INTRODUCTION: Community-based mentor mothers (cMMs) are women living with HIV who provide peer support to pregnant/postpartum women living with HIV (PWLWH) to enhance antiretroviral therapy (ART) adherence, retention in care and prevent perinatal transmission of HIV. The goal of this study was to explore the experiences, perceptions, mechanisms and health impact of cMMs on PWLWH in Kenya from the perspective of cMMs. METHODS: We conducted a prospective mixed-methods study in southwestern Kenya in 2015-2018. In the qualitative phase, we completed in-depth interviews with cMMs to explore their perceptions and experiences in supporting PWLWH. Transcripts were broad-coded according to identified themes, then fine-coded using an inductive approach. In the quantitative phase, we analysed medical record data from PWLWH who were randomized in the cMM intervention to examine the impact of cMM visits on optimal prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT). We used cluster-adjusted generalized estimating equation models to examine relationships with a composite outcome (facility delivery, infant HIV testing, ART adherence and undetectable viral load at 6 weeks postpartum). Finally, qualitative and quantitative results were integrated. RESULTS: Convergence of findings from cMM interviews (n = 24) and PWLWH medical data (n = 589) revealed: (1) The cMM intervention was utilized and perceived as acceptable. PWLWH received, on average, 6.2 of 8 intended home visits through 6 weeks postpartum. (2) The cMMs reported serving as role models and confidantes, supporting PWLWH's acceptance of their HIV status, providing assurances about PMTCT and assisting with male partner disclosure and communication. cMMs also described benefits for themselves, including empowerment and increased income. (3) The cMM visits supported PWLWH's completion of PMTCT steps. Having ≥4 cMM home visits up to 6 weeks postpartum, as compared to <4 visits, was associated with higher likelihood of an optimal PMTCT composite outcome (adjusted relative risk 1.42, p = 0.044). CONCLUSIONS: We found that peer support from cMMs during pregnancy through 6 weeks postpartum was associated with improved uptake of critical PMTCT services and health behaviours and was perceived as beneficial for cMMs themselves. CMM support of PWLWH may be valuable for other low-resource settings to improve engagement with lifelong ART and HIV services among PWLWH.

Behavioral Interventions can Mitigate Adverse Pregnancy Outcomes Among Women Conceiving on ART and Those Initiated on ART During Pregnancy: Findings From the MOTIVATE Trial in Southwestern Kenya.

BACKGROUND: Antiretroviral therapy (ART) is essential for the elimination of mother-to-child transmission and improved health outcomes for women living with HIV (WLWH). However, adverse pregnancy outcomes (APOs) among pregnant women on ART are a growing concern. METHODS: We investigated the associations between timing of ART initiation and APOs among pregnant WLWH receiving behavioral interventions (community mentor mothers and text messaging) in the Mother-Infant Visit Adherence and Treatment Engagement (MOTIVATE) study in southwestern Kenya. Log binomial models were used for estimation of relative risks (RRs) (adjusted for the clustered nature of data) evaluating APOs with 3 exposure comparisons: (1) preconception ART initiation vs. postconception initiation; (2) among postconception ART initiating women, comparisons across gestational ages at cART initiation (first versus second and third trimester exposure), and (3) intervention allocation. RESULTS: Of the 1275 women included in this analysis, 388 (30%) had an APO: 306 preterm births, 38 low birth weight infants, 33 stillbirths, and 11 miscarriages. In multivariable analysis, viral load ≥1000 copies/mL, moderate and severe anemia at baseline increased risk of APOs. Among women initiating ART before and after conception, no difference was observed in the composite APO. Women who received community mentor mother visits alone (aRR 0.74: 95% CI: 0.71 to 0.76) or text messages alone (aRR 0.79: 95% CI: 0.70 to 0.89) had lower risks of experiencing any APOs. CONCLUSIONS: Receiving supportive behavioral interventions may mitigate the risk of experiencing an APO among WLWH on ART. Further studies are needed to investigate the underlying mechanisms and optimize the benefits of these interventions.

Male partner involvement and successful completion of the prevention of mother-to-child transmission continuum of care in Kenya.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the relationship between male partner involvement (MPI) in prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) activities and successful completion of the PMTCT continuum of care, which remains sub-optimal in settings with high prevalence of HIV. METHODS: A cross-sectional survey was administered in June-August 2017 to a sample of 200 postpartum Kenyan women with HIV enrolled in a parent trial. Composite PMTCT and MPI variables were created. Descriptive, simple and multivariable regression, and mediation analyses were performed. RESULTS: Of the women, 54% reported successful completion of PMTCT. Depression and internalized HIV stigma were independently associated with lower likelihood of successful completion of PMTCT (adjusted risk ratio [aRR] 0.97; 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.94-0.99; aRR 0.92; 95% CI 0.88-0.98, respectively). Each MPI activity was associated with 10% greater likelihood of successful completion of PMTCT (P < 0.05). The relationship between MPI and the successful completion of PMTCT was partially mediated through women's reduced internalized HIV stigma (ß -0.03; 95%CI -0.06 to -0.00). CONCLUSION: Greater MPI in PMTCT activities has direct and indirect effects on women's successful completion of all necessary steps across the PMTCT continuum. Reduced internalized HIV stigma is likely a key mechanism in the relationship.

Effects of Depression, Stigma and Intimate Partner Violence on Postpartum Women's Adherence and Engagement in HIV Care in Kenya.

We explored the association between HIV-related stigma and experiences of intimate partner violence (IPV) and depression with viral load suppression, and medication and visit adherence in postpartum women receiving lifelong antiretroviral therapy (ART) (N = 200). We administered a cross-sectional survey to 200 women with HIV at 12 months postpartum who were enrolled in the MOTIVATE trial. The MOTIVATE study is a cluster-randomized trial evaluating the impact of community mentor mothers and text messaging on PMTCT outcomes in southwestern Kenya. Simple and multivariable logistic regression analysis was performed in STATA. Women who experienced stigma or IPV were more likely to miss clinic visits (internalized stigma aOR 1.30 95%CI 1.03-1.64; anticipated stigma aOR 1.20 95%CI 1.04-1.42; IPV aOR 15.71 95%CI 1.47-167.80), report difficulty taking ART drugs (internalized stigma aOR 1.32 95%CI 1.10-1.58; anticipated stigma aOR 1.14 95%CI 1.01-1.30) and not taking medication as prescribed (IPV aOR 2.00 95%CI 1.05-3.74). Depression was additionally associated with decreased odds of viral load suppression (aOR 0.16 95%CI 0.04-0.76). There is need to develop tailored psychosocial interventions within PMTCT programs that appropriately address mental health, stigma, and violence.

HIV status disclosure patterns and male partner reactions among pregnant women with HIV on lifelong ART in Western Kenya.

Disclosure of HIV status to sexual partners in the context of prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) may contribute to improved PMTCT outcomes. We administered a questionnaire to 200 women with HIV enrolled in a PMTCT study during pregnancy at 12 months after birth in Western Kenya between May-September 2017. Descriptive analysis of disclosure patterns and multivariate analysis of factors associated with male partner reactions is presented. Among 180 (90%) women who reported having a male partner, 95.5% reported disclosing their HIV status to that partner. The majority of women (82.8%) reported disclosure occurred within one year of their diagnosis, with 62.7% occurring within one week. The most common forms of disclosure were: self-disclosure (55.4%), during couple's HIV testing and counseling (CHTC) (31.5%), or at an antenatal care visit (7.7%). Most women (87.5%) reported that male partner reactions to their HIV status disclosure were positive. Those with negative reactions reported their partners were confused, annoyed, or threatened to leave, however there were no reports of intimate partner violence (IPV) or break ups. Disclosure via CHTC was associated with a positive male partner reaction compared to self-disclosure (adjusted OR (aOR) 20.2, 95% Confidence Interval (CI) 1.8-221.4). Those in concordant HIV status partnerships were more likely to have a positive reaction (aOR. 6.7, 95% CI 1.7-26.6). Women experiencing frequent verbal IPV were less likely to report a positive response (aOR 0.21, 95%CI 0.1-0.8). Most postpartum women with HIV in this cohort had disclosed to their male partners early after diagnosis and experienced a positive reaction. However, a minority had still not disclosed by 12 months after the birth and some experienced negative reactions to disclosure. The form of status disclosure and impact of intimate partner violence should be given greater attention within the context of PMTCT.