Alcohol and mouth cancer.

There is now considered to be no safe limit for alcohol intake. Studies have shown that risk of mouth cancer increases with greater alcohol intake (in particular when associated with the use of tobacco). This paper reviews the role for alcohol in the aetiology of mouth cancer both in terms of how it may give rise to cancerous change and the relative risk it carries (arising from various systematic and meta-analyses reported over the last decade). While obtaining a reliable alcohol history can be problematic (with under reporting frequently suspected) greater awareness of the role of alcohol in both local and systemic disease (in particular that of cancer in an ever increasing number of sites) may serve as a motivator for behaviour change within our patients. To that end patients should be aware of the alcohol content in the drinks they consume and consider recording their alcohol intake over a defined period (eg, use of a diary or app over a two to four week period).

Retention of Asymptomatic Third Molars May be Unwise.

ARTICLE TITLE AND BIBLIOGRAPHIC INFORMATION: What is the risk of future extraction of asymptomatic third molars? A systematic review. Bouloux GF, Busaidy KF, Beirne OR, Chuang S-K, Dodson TB. J Oral Maxillofac Surg 2015;73(5):806-11. SOURCE OF FUNDING: No external funding source is identified although all 5 authors appear to be on the American Association of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery 3rd Molar Task Force TYPE OF STUDY/DESIGN: Systematic review.

Current practices and intention to provide alcohol-related health advice in primary dental care.

OBJECTIVES: To determine whether general dental practitioners (GDPs) currently provide alcohol-related advice (ARA) and to inform the development of an intervention, should one be required. METHOD: Cross-sectional postal survey of a random sample of 300 GDPs in Scotland. The questionnaire assessed beliefs derived from psychological models that explain behaviour in terms of beliefs that are amenable to change, and so may inform development of an intervention to encourage the provision of ARA. RESULTS: Sixty percent of GDPs responded. Eighty-three percent of participating GDPs (145/175) had not provided ARA to patients in the previous ten working days. Attitude (perceived consequences), control beliefs (perceived difficulty), subjective norm (perceived social pressure), and self-efficacy (confidence) significantly predicted intention to provide ARA. Alcohol-related knowledge or personal alcohol behaviour did not predict intention to provide ARA. CONCLUSIONS: There is scope to increase the provision of ARA in primary care dentistry and this study identified predictive beliefs, which could be targeted to encourage this behaviour. The next phase is to develop and test an intervention to encourage GDPs to provide ARA.

Delivering alcohol screening and alcohol brief interventions within general dental practice: rationale and overview of the evidence.

Alcohol consumption and affordability in the UK has increased over the last 50 years and is associated with a range of adverse oral health outcomes, the most serious of which, oral cancer, is also increasing in incidence. Despite this, routine screening and intervention relating to alcohol consumption within general dental practice remains uncommon. This review of the literature describes the background and outlines the evidence base for undertaking alcohol screening and delivering brief interventions in general dental practice. Consideration will be given to the rationale for, and range of issues related to, introducing this into general dental practice.

General dental practitioner views on providing alcohol related health advice; an exploratory study.

OBJECTIVE: To identify salient beliefs of general dental practitioners (GDPs) regarding their role in the identification of alcohol misuse and the provision of an alcohol related health message in the primary dental care setting. METHOD: A convenience sample of 12 GDPs practising in the North Highland region of Scotland underwent semi-structured interview. An inductive approach was used with subsequent basic thematic content analysis performed on the transcripts. RESULTS: GDPs universally agreed that alcohol consumption plays a role in both oral health and general health but this did not translate into effective communication about alcohol during dental consultation. Current knowledge of recommended safe alcohol consumption guidelines was poor - evidence of potential GDP training requirements. The primary barriers related to disruption of the clinician-patient relationship, embarrassment or the perceived irrelevance to the clinical situation. GDPs expressed low confidence in approaching alcohol related problems. CONCLUSIONS: GDPs felt that alcohol based discussions in primary care would not be relevant and would inevitably lead to disruption of the patient-clinician relationship. Further research is necessary to more fully understand the attitudes, behaviour and knowledge of GDPs regarding the provision of alcohol related health advice. The results of this study have informed the design of a paper postal survey for wider distribution.

Incidence of symptoms in previously symptom-free impacted lower third molars assessed in general dental practice.

AIM: To determine the potential of a pathology-free impacted lower third molar to cause symptoms within a year and whether these symptoms can be linked to clinical characteristics, lifestyle or socio-demographic status. DESIGN: One-year prospective cohort study of patients registered in general dental practice in Scotland with at least one asymptomatic impacted lower third molar. METHODS: All general dental practices with panoramic radiography facilities in Tayside, Fife and Greater Glasgow (Scotland, UK) were invited to participate in the study. Orthopantomographs taken between 1995 and 2002 were reviewed and eligible patients were contacted and invited to participate. Patients were assessed in their own dental surgery by the same research dentist. In this baseline assessment, the presence of impaction was confirmed and all patients with a previous history of symptoms and/or pathology were excluded from further analysis. Clinical characteristics such as the angulation and the degree of impaction were recorded. Patients also completed a socioeconomic questionnaire. Eligible patients were re-assessed by the same research dentist one year later when they were asked about their experience of symptoms within the past year. Information was cross-referenced with patients' dental records. RESULTS: A total of 613 patients attended the baseline appointment. Of those, 30 (4.89%) had a history of symptoms and were excluded from the study, leaving 583 (95.10%) eligible patients. From those, 421 (69%) patients with a total of 676 lower third molars were examined one year later. 22.67% of all vertically impacted teeth examined had developed symptoms, along with 13.15% of all mesially impacted, 30.69% of all distally impacted and 6.45% of all horizontal third molars. This association was statistically significant (p < or =0.001). 23.05% of all partially erupted teeth and a surprising 10.49% of all unerupted teeth were associated with symptoms during the study period. This association was also significant (p < or =0.001). There was also a statistically significant inverse association between the development of symptoms and age (p = 0.0028). CONCLUSIONS: The predictability that an impacted lower third molar will develop symptoms in future remains unclear. However, some clinical characteristics such as the angulation, the degree of impaction and the patient's age could be useful in predicting the likelihood of future symptomatology.

Detection of mucosal abnormalities in patients with oral cancer using a photodynamic technique: A pilot study.

Patients who have had one oral cancer are at increased risk of developing a further malignant tumour, the detection of which is made difficult (and is often delayed) by the innocuous appearance of the early oral lesion. A technique that could reliably detect early cancers would be useful to both oral and dental health specialists. We describe a pilot study in which we used a compact spectroscopic instrument designed to excite and measure fluorescence in the oral cavity. The data were processed using principal components analysis, and the results suggest that the technique might be valuable for detecting early oral cancers. Further work should be performed to investigate some unusual characteristics observed within our data to ascertain if these are significant, simply due to errors made due data collection, or are due to other lifestyle factors. Such work could also verify that the data are due to detection of ALA metabolite in cancer and not some other systemic effect.

Oral cancer awareness of general medical and general dental practitioners.

OBJECTIVE: To assess general medical practitioners' (GMPs') and general dental practitioners' (GDPs') awareness of prevention and early detection of oral cancer. DESIGN: Cross-sectional questionnaire-based study. SETTING: Primary care. METHOD: Questionnaires were delivered to all GMPs and GDPs in Tayside, assessing oral examination habits, delivery of advice on oral cancer risk factors, knowledge of oral cancer risk factors and clinical appearance, preferred point of referral and requests for further information. RESULTS: Response rates of 71% and 84% were obtained from GMPs and GDPs respectively. GMPs were less likely to examine patients' oral mucosa routinely, less likely to advise patients about risk factors for oral cancer, identified fewer risk factors for, and felt less confident about diagnosing oral cancer from clinical appearance than their dental counterparts. Seventy-one percent and 80% of GMPs and GDPs respectively requested further information about oral cancer. CONCLUSION: Patients with oral lesions often present to their general medical practitioner. The incidence of oral cancer is rising in the United Kingdom, therefore the role of general medical practitioners in prevention and detection of oral cancer is becoming ever more important. This study highlights the need for improved education of general medical practitioners on oral cancer.

Dyskeratosis congenita: oral hyperkeratosis in association with lichenoid reaction.

Dyskeratosis congenita is an inherited disorder that usually presents in males, consisting of a triad of leukoplakia of the mucous membranes, nail dystrophy and skin pigmentation. Whilst most cases are X-linked, autosomal dominant and recessive forms have also been reported. The significance of the condition lies in premature mortality arising from either bone marrow failure or malignant change within the areas of mucosal leukoplakia. We present a case (X-linked recessive form) where the classic triad of signs were present, along with the development of lichenoid reaction in the buccal and labial mucosa. This is believed to be the first case in which such a reaction has been noted together with the oral hyperkeratosis. The identification of a white patch within the mouth of a child, in the absence of any other obvious cause must arouse suspicion of this rare condition. All clinicians should be aware of this rare genetic disorder so that early referral can be made and appropriate management instigated.

Vascularity and expression of vascular endothelial growth factor in oral squamous cell carcinoma, resection margins, and nodal metastases.

The role of vascularity as a predictor of the likelihood of lymph node metastases in oral cancer is not clear. To that end, the vascularity and expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) was assessed at three specific regions: the tumour (inside and around the tumour); the resection margin; and the regional lymph nodes. Formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded specimens from 26 oral cancers (11 with no involved nodes and 15 with involved nodes) were stained immunohistochemically and examined. Staining for VEFG was significantly greater in the tumour than in the other sites. No significant differences were found in the intensity of staining in the primary tumour, resection margins, or nodes between cases in which the nodes were involved and in which they were not involved. We found no correlation between vascularity and VEGF staining, suggesting that VEGF is not the primary or only stimulator of angiogenesis in oral cancer. Greater understanding of the mechanisms of metastasis will lead to new treatments. The evidence that is accumulating for oral cancer suggests that such treatments may be better targeted at preventing lymphatic spread, rather than vascular spread.

Dyskeratosis congenita.

Dyskeratosis congenita is an inherited disorder that usually presents in males, consisting of the triad of leukoplakia of the mucous membranes, nail dystrophy and skin pigmentation. Whilst most cases are X-linked, autosomal dominant and recessive forms have been reported. The significance of the condition lies in premature mortality arising from either bone marrow failure or malignant change within the areas of leukoplakia. Various mucocutaneous and non-mucocutaneous manifestations have been reported. The syndrome arises from an inherited defect within the DKC1 gene that codes for the protein dyskerin in the X-linked recessive form of the disorder, whereas mutations in the RNA component of telomerase (TERC) result in the autosomal dominant form of the condition. The identification of a white patch within the mouth of a child in the absence of any other obvious cause should arouse suspicion of this rare condition. Greater understanding of the molecular biology surrounding this syndrome should lead to improvements in diagnosis, monitoring of disease progression and therapy.

The effect of the antibody used and method of quantification on oral mucosal vascularity.

A vast literature exists on angiogenesis particularly with regard to understanding tumour growth and development. This is no less true for oral cancer, where slight variations in protocols may invalidate comparison between studies. The influence of tissue processing, and the specific antibody and method of quantification used to identify blood vessels was assessed with respect to oral mucosal vascularity. The angiogenic profile of 20 frozen sections of clinically normal oral mucosa were compared with 16 paraffin-embedded specimens. Eight of the frozen specimens had matched paraffin-embedded tissue. Vascular antigens were identified immunohistochemically using four antibodies and blood vessel density was measured by three methods. CD31 and von Willebrand's factor (vWF) counts were higher than alpha-smooth muscle actin and alphanubeta3. Results for CD31 were higher in frozen tissue than paraffin-embedded tissue. Significantly more CD31-positive vessels were found in frozen tissue in the cohort of matched samples. For paraffin-embedded tissue vWF gave higher values for vascularity than CD31. The variation in antibody reaction to these markers of blood vessels suggests that the antibody employed and method of fixation is more important than the method of quantification used. Comparison of the results for fresh frozen tissue and paraffin-processed tissue suggests that this is acceptable for vWF but not for CD31.

Evidence for a field change effect based on angiogenesis in the oral mucosa? A brief report.

The concept of field cancerisation was proposed to explain the development of second primary tumours in the upper aerodigestive tract. The formation of new blood vessels (angiogenesis) has been shown to accompany oral disease progression, however, little is known about its potential role as an indicator of field cancerisation. The aims of this study were to compare the angiogenic profile of normal oral mucosa from oral cancer patients with that sampled from cancer-free patients to seek evidence for differences that might be termed a field change. Oral mucosal tissue (NC) was obtained from 25 oral cancer patients from a site at least 1 cm distant from the primary tumour and was compared with normal oral mucosa (NN) from a further 20 non-cancer patients. The vascularity of the tissue was investigated immunohistochemically using four antibodies and three methods of quantitation. Vascularity was significantly higher in the NC group than the NN with all four markers (p<0.01). Significantly higher indices of vascularity were found for patients who were smoker/drinkers in the NC group (p<0.05). The increased vascularity may provide a rationale for anti-angiogenic drug therapy for tertiary prevention.

Development of a structured clinical operative test (SCOT) in the assessment of practical ability in the oral surgery undergraduate curriculum.

Competence in undergraduate oral surgery involves assessment of the students' knowledge, practical skill and attitude. The assessment of practical skills can be achieved using a formative assessment method such as the structured clinical operative test (SCOT) which uses a checklist for the assessment of a clinical task. The aim of this study was primarily to determine whether SCOTs could be integrated into the oral surgery undergraduate course, and secondarily to collect feedback from both the students and the staff on this assessment. A validated checklist was used by trained examiners to assess the performance of 49 students in their second clinical year undertaking simple exodontia. Feedback was collected from the students by questionnaire and from the staff by interview. The SCOT was well received by both students and staff. The main problem highlighted by the students was the perceived inter-examiner variability and by the staff, the disruptive effect on the clinics. The checklist must be objective enough to prevent misinterpretation. Despite these limitations, the SCOT provides a more objective assessment and serves to highlight weaker students, allowing them to be targeted for closer supervision and instruction as well as providing the students with a tool to measure their progress in oral surgery. The use of peer assessment by students may alleviate the burden on the staff.

Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) expression in oral tissues: possible relevance to angiogenesis, tumour progression and field cancerisation.

The aim of this study was to assess whether vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) expression in oral tissues is associated with angiogenesis, disease progression or field cancerisation. Vascularity and VEGF immunoreactivity were quantified in 68 archival specimens including normal oral mucosa (NOM), dysplasia (DYS) and squamous cell carcinoma (SCC). Vascularity increased significantly with disease progression; it was also higher in NOM adjacent to SCC than in NOM from healthy tissue, suggesting an association with field cancerisation. VEGF expression in epithelial cells was evaluated using two antibodies and three indices. VEGF indices and vascularity were not directly correlated. The expression of VEGF was similar in all DYS and NOM specimens, whether or not adjacent to a concurrent lesion. A comparison of SCC with NOM or DYS led to opposite results, depending on the VEGF antibody and index used. We conclude that VEGF expression in the oral mucosa may play a physiological role, but does not appear to be associated with angiogenesis, field cancerisation or transition to dysplasia. Further studies concerned with tumour development require examining specific VEGF isoforms and standardisation of the methodology.

The use of interprofessional peer examiners in an objective structured clinical examination: can dental students act as examiners?

OBJECTIVE: To assess whether final year dental students could act as reliable examiners within an Objective Structured Clinical Examination (OSCE) by comparison with results obtained by an experienced member of staff. DESIGN: A station testing examination of the mouth was included in the second year medical undergraduate summative OSCE examination. SETTING: Concurrently run in three different examination venues on the Ninewells Hospital campus. SUBJECTS: 147 medical students and 3 pairs (A, B, C) of examiners. Each examining pairing consisted of one member of staff and one dental student (blind to each other's marking). METHOD: A checklist of 13 tasks to be performed was provided to the examiners. One mark awarded for a completed task, no mark for no attempt at the task, and half a mark for attempt at task. RESULTS: Paired results were available for 125 medical students. Using Mann-Witney analysis, the non-parametric 95% confidence intervals for the difference in scores between the 3 paired teams were group A (-0.5, 0), group B (-0.5, 0.5), group C (-0.5, 0). In only 4 students (out of 125) did the difference between the individual pair differ by 2 or more marks. CONCLUSION: On the basis of this pilot study final year dental students may be used as examiners in OSCEs where basic technical skills are to be evaluated. This development from peer group teaching provides further evidence supportive of interprofessional education.

Assessing health outcomes after extraction of third molars: the postoperative symptom severity (PoSSe) scale.

A postoperative symptom severity (PoSSe) scale was devised from questions commonly used in the clinical assessment of patients who have had third molars extracted, and divided into subscales corresponding to seven main adverse effects that had been identified in a previous study. Ninety-seven patients completed the 15-item questionnaire at one week, and 71 patients at four weeks, after extraction of impacted third molars. After statistical testing, four items were discarded and the final PoSSe scale achieved a high level of internal reliability. Patients' PoSSe scores were highly correlated with scales that measured six distinct health dimensions. The level of social functioning, together with the number of impacted teeth and number of painkillers taken, explained 62% of the variation in PoSSe scores between patients one week postoperatively. The PoSSe was more responsive than the Short Form 36-item Health Survey. In conclusion, we found the PoSSe Scale to be a reliable, valid and responsive measure of the severity of symptoms after extraction of third molars, and of the impact of those symptoms on patients' perceived health.

An overview of the cell cycle arrest protein, p21(WAF1).

p21, also known as WAF1, Cip1, Sdi1, Mda 6 and Cap20 is a cell cycle protein that regulates and can arrest the cell cycle in G1 or S phase (either dependent or independent of p53). Its role may be pivotal in many cell processes including differentiation and apoptosis. This brief overview provides a summary of its presently known functions and indicates areas for further research, particularly in relation to oral malignant disease. Greater understanding of its role may lead to therapeutic advances in the management of malignant disease.