Functional characterization of three (GH13) branching enzymes involved in cyanobacterial starch biosynthesis from Cyanobacterium sp. NBRC 102756.

Starch and glycogen are widespread storage polysaccharides in bacteria, plants, and animals. Recently, some cyanobacteria were found to accumulate water-insoluble α-glucan similar to amylopectin rather than glycogen, the latter of which is more commonly produced in these organisms. The amylopectin-producing species including Cyanobacterium sp. NBRC 102756 invariably have three branching enzyme (BE) homologs, BE1, BE2, and BE3, all belonging to the glycoside hydrolase family 13. Multiple BE isoforms in prokaryotes have not been previously studied. In the present work, we carried out functional characterization of these enzymes expressed in Escherichia coli. The recombinant enzymes were all active, although the specific activity of BE3 was much lower than those of BE1 and BE2. After the incubation of the enzymes with amylopectin or amylose, the reaction products were analyzed by fluorophore-assisted carbohydrate capillary electrophoresis method. BE1 and BE2 showed similar chain-length preference to BEIIb isoform of rice (Oryza sativa L.), while the catalytic specificity of BE3 was similar to that of rice BEI. These results indicate that starch-producing cyanobacteria have both type-I BE (BE3) and type-II BEs (BE1 and BE2) in terms of chain-length preferences, as is the case of plants. All BE isoforms were active against phosphorylase limit dextrin, in which outer branches had been uniformly diminished to 4 glucose residues. Based on its catalytic properties, BE3 was assumed to have a role to transfer the glucan chain bearing branch(es) to give rise to a newly growing unit, or cluster as observed in amylopectin molecule.

Diversity of reaction characteristics of glucan branching enzymes and the fine structure of α-glucan from various sources.

To investigate the functional properties of 10 α-glucan branching enzymes (BEs) from various sources, we determined the chain-length distribution of BE enzymatic products and their phosphorylase-limit dextrins (Φ-LD). All BEs could be classified into either of the three rice BE isozymes: OsBEI, OsBEIIa, or OsBEIIb. Escherichia coli BE (EcoBE) had the same enzymatic properties as OsBEI, while Synechococcus elongatus BE (ScoBE) and Chlorella kessleri BE (ChlBE) had BEIIb-type properties. Human BE (HosBE), yeast BE (SacBE), and two Porphyridium purpureum BEs (PopBE1 and PopBE2) exhibited the OsBEIIa-type properties. Analysis of chain-length profile of Φ-LD of the BE reaction products revealed that EcoBE, ScoBE, PopBE1, and PopBE2 preferred A-chains as acceptors, while OsBEIIb used B-chains more frequently than A-chains. Both EcoBE and ScoBE specifically formed the branch linkages at the third glucose residue from the reducing end of the acceptor chain. The present results provide evidence for the first time that great variation exists as to the preference of BEs for their acceptor chain, either A-chain or B-chain. In addition, EcoBE and ScoBE recognize the location of branching points in their acceptor chain during their branching reaction. Nevertheless, no correlation exists between the primary structure of BE proteins and their enzymatic characteristics.

Mutation of the plastidial alpha-glucan phosphorylase gene in rice affects the synthesis and structure of starch in the endosperm.

Plastidial phosphorylase (Pho1) accounts for approximately 96% of the total phosphorylase activity in developing rice (Oryza sativa) seeds. From mutant stocks induced by N-methyl-N-nitrosourea treatment, we identified plants with mutations in the Pho1 gene that are deficient in Pho1. Strikingly, the size of mature seeds and the starch content in these mutants showed considerable variation, ranging from shrunken to pseudonormal. The loss of Pho1 caused smaller starch granules to accumulate and modified the amylopectin structure. Variation in the morphological and biochemical phenotype of individual seeds was common to all 15 pho1-independent homozygous mutant lines studied, indicating that this phenotype was caused solely by the genetic defect. The phenotype of the pho1 mutation was temperature dependent. While the mutant plants grown at 30 degrees C produced mainly plump seeds at maturity, most of the seeds from plants grown at 20 degrees C were shrunken, with a significant proportion showing severe reduction in starch accumulation. These results strongly suggest that Pho1 plays a crucial role in starch biosynthesis in rice endosperm at low temperatures and that one or more other factors can complement the function of Pho1 at high temperatures.

Function and characterization of starch synthase I using mutants in rice.

Four starch synthase I (SSI)-deficient rice (Oryza sativa) mutant lines were generated using retrotransposon Tos17 insertion. The mutants exhibited different levels of SSI activities and produced significantly lower amounts of SSI protein ranging from 0% to 20% of the wild type. The mutant endosperm amylopectin showed a decrease in chains with degree of polymerization (DP) 8 to 12 and an increase in chains with DP 6 to 7 and DP 16 to 19. The degree of change in amylopectin chain-length distribution was positively correlated with the extent of decrease in SSI activity in the mutants. The structural changes in the amylopectin increased the gelatinization temperature of endosperm starch. Chain-length analysis of amylopectin in the SSI band excised from native-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis/SS activity staining gel showed that SSI preferentially synthesized DP 7 to 11 chains by elongating DP 4 to 7 short chains of glycogen or amylopectin. These results show that SSI distinctly generates DP 8 to 12 chains from short DP 6 to 7 chains emerging from the branch point in the A or B(1) chain of amylopectin. SSI seemingly functions from the very early through the late stage of endosperm development. Yet, the complete absence of SSI, despite being a major SS isozyme in the developing endosperm, had no effect on the size and shape of seeds and starch granules and the crystallinity of endosperm starch, suggesting that other SS enzymes are probably capable of partly compensating SSI function. In summary, this study strongly suggested that amylopectin chains are synthesized by the coordinated actions of SSI, SSIIa, and SSIIIa isoforms.

Expression profiling of starch metabolism-related plastidic translocator genes in rice.

The genes encoding the major putative rice plastidic translocators involved in the carbon flow related to starch metabolism were identified by exhaustive database searches. The genes identified were two for the triose phosphate/phosphate translocator (TPT), five for the glucose 6-phosphate/phosphate translocator (GPT) including putatively non-functional ones, four for the phosphoenolpyruvate/phosphate translocator (PPT), three for the putative ADP-glucose translocator (or Brittle-1 protein, BT1), two for the plastidic nucleotide transport protein (NTT), and one each for the plastidic glucose translocator (pGlcT) and the maltose translocator (MT). The expression patterns of the genes in various photosynthetic and non-photosynthetic organs were examined by quantitative real-time PCR. OsBT1-1 was specifically expressed in the seed and its transcript level tremendously increased at the onset of vigorous starch production in the endosperm, suggesting that the ADP-glucose synthesized in the cytosol is a major precursor for starch biosynthesis in the endosperm amyloplast. In contrast, all of the genes for OsTPT, OsPPT, and OsNTT were mainly expressed in source tissues, suggesting that their proteins play essential roles in the regulation of carbohydrate metabolism in chloroplasts. Substantial expression of the four OsGPT genes and the OspGlcT gene in both source and sink organs suggests that the transport of glucose phosphate and glucose is physiologically important in both photosynthetic and non-photosynthetic tissues. The present study shows that comprehensive analysis of expression patterns of the plastidic translocator genes is a valuable tool for the elucidation of the functions of the translocators in the regulation of starch metabolism in rice.

Expression profiling of genes involved in starch synthesis in sink and source organs of rice.

A comprehensive analysis of the transcript levels of genes which encode starch-synthesis enzymes is fundamental for the assessment of the function of each enzyme and the regulatory mechanism for starch biosynthesis in source and sink organs. Using quantitative real-time RT-PCR, an examination was made of the expression profiles of 27 rice genes encoding six classes of enzymes, i.e. ADPglucose pyrophosphorylase (AGPase), starch synthase, starch branching enzyme, starch debranching enzyme, starch phosphorylase, and disproportionating enzyme in developing seeds and leaves. The modes of gene expression were tissue- and developmental stage-specific. Four patterns of expression in the seed were identified: group 1 genes, which are expressed very early in grain formation and are presumed to be involved in the construction of fundamental cell machineries, de novo synthesis of glucan primers, and initiation of starch granules; group 2 genes, which are highly expressed throughout endosperm development; group 3 genes, which have transcripts that are low at the onset but which rise steeply at the start of starch synthesis in the endosperm and are thought to play essential roles in endosperm starch synthesis; and group 4 genes, which are expressed scantly, mainly at the onset of grain development, and might be involved in synthesis of starch in the pericarp. The methodology also revealed that the defect in the cytosolic AGPase small subunit2b (AGPS2b) transcription from the AGPS2 gene in endosperm sharply enhanced the expressions of endosperm and leaf plastidial AGPS1, the endosperm cytosolic AGPase large subunit2 (AGPL2), and the leaf plastidial AGPL1.