A regulatory mechanism of mouse kallikrein 1 gene expression by estrogen.

Tissue kallikrein 1 (Klk1) is a serine protease that degrades several proteins including insulin-like growth factor binding protein-3 and extracellular matrix molecules. Klk1 mRNA expression in the mouse uterus was increased by estradiol-17ß (E2). The present study aimed to clarify the regulatory mechanism for Klk1 expression by estrogen. The promoter analysis of the 5'-flanking region of Klk1 showed that the minimal promoter of Klk1 existed in the -136/+24 region, and the estrogen-responsive region in the -433/-136 region. Tamoxifen increased Klk1 mRNA expression and the promoter activity, suggesting the involvement of AP-1 sites. Site-directed mutagenesis for the putative AP-1 sites in the -433/-136 region showed that the two putative AP-1 sites were involved in the regulation of Klk1 expression. Binding of estrogen receptor α (ERα) to the -433/-136 region was revealed by Chip assay. These results indicated that ERα bound the two putative AP-1 sites and transactivated Klk1 in the mouse uterus.

Neuromedin U-deficient rats do not lose body weight or food intake.

Studies in genetically modified mice establish that essential roles of endogenous neuromedin U (NMU) are anorexigenic function and metabolic regulation, indicating that NMU is expected to be a potential target for anti-obesity agents. However, in central administration experiments in rats, inconsistent results have been obtained, and the essential role of NMU energy metabolism in rats remain unclear. This study aims to elucidate the role of endogenous NMU in rats. We generated NMU knockout (KO) rats that unexpectedly showed no difference in body weight, adiposity, circulating metabolic markers, body temperature, locomotor activity, and food consumption in both normal and high fat chow feeding. Furthermore, unlike reported in mice, expressions of Nmu and NMU receptor type 2 (Nmur2) mRNA were hardly detectable in the rat hypothalamic nuclei regulating feeding and energy metabolism, including the arcuate nucleus and paraventricular nucleus, while Nmu was expressed in pars tuberalis and Nmur2 was expressed in the ependymal cell layer of the third ventricle. These results indicate that the species-specific expression pattern of Nmu and Nmur2 may allow NMU to have distinct functions across species, and that endogenous NMU does not function as an anorexigenic hormone in rats.

Adenosine stimulates neuromedin U mRNA expression in the rat pars tuberalis.

Neuromedin U (NMU) shows circadian expression in the rat pars tuberalis (PT), and is known to be suppressed by melatonin. Here we examined the involvement of adenosine in the regulation of Nmu expression. We found that the rat PT expressed adenosine receptor A2b and that an adenosine receptor agonist, NECA, stimulated Nmu expression in brain slice cultures. In vitro promoter assays revealed that NECA stimulated Nmu promoter activity via a cAMP response element (CRE) in the presence of adenosine receptor A2b. NECA also increased the levels of phosphorylated CRE-binding protein. These findings suggest that adenosine stimulates Nmu expression by activating the cAMP signaling pathway through adenosine receptor A2b in the rat PT. This is the first report to demonstrate that Nmu expression in the PT is regulated by adenosine, which acts as an intravital central metabolic signal, in addition to melatonin, which acts as an external photoperiodic environmental signal.

Runx3 regulates folliculogenesis and steroidogenesis in granulosa cells of immature mice.

We previously demonstrated that female Runx3 knockout (Runx3-/-) mice were anovulatory and their uteri were atrophic and that Runx3 mRNA was expressed in granulosa cells. To clarify how Runx3 regulates folliculogenesis and ovulation, we examine the effects of Runx3 knockout on the gene expression of growth factors associated with folliculogenesis and enzymes associated with steroidogenesis. In Runx3-/- mouse ovaries, the numbers of primary and antral follicles were lower than those in wild-type (wt) mice at 3 weeks of age, indicating that the loss of Runx3 affects folliculogenesis. The expression of genes encoding activin and inhibin subunits (Inha, Inhba and Inhbb) was also decreased in ovaries from the Runx3-/- mice compared with that in wt mice. Moreover, the expression of the genes Cyp11a1 and Cyp19a1 encoding steroidogenic enzymes was also decreased. In cultured granulosa cells from 3-week-old mouse ovaries, Cyp19a1 mRNA levels were lower in Runx3-/- mice than those in wt mice. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) treatment increased Cyp19a1 mRNA levels in both wt and Runx3-/- granulosa cells in culture but the mRNA level in Runx3-/- granulosa cells was lower than that in wt ones, indicating that granulosa cells could not fully function in the absence of Runx3. At 3 weeks of age, gonadotropin α subunit, FSHß subunit and luteinizing hormone (LH) ß subunit mRNA levels were decreased in Runx3-/- mice. These findings suggest that Runx3 plays a key role in female reproduction by regulating folliculogenesis and steroidogenesis in granulosa cells.

Runx3 transcription factor regulates ovarian functions and ovulation in female mice.

We previously demonstrated that the Runx3 transcription factor is expressed in the hypothalami, pituitaries, and ovaries of mice, and that Runx3 knockout (Runx3-/-) mice are anovulatory and their uteri are atrophic. Runx3 mRNA expression was detected in the granulosa cells of ovarian follicles, and in the anteroventral periventricular nucleus (AVPV) and arcuate nucleus (ARC). In the present study, we examined the effects of Runx3 knockout on the gene expression of enzymes associated with steroidogenesis. We found decreased Cyp11a1 mRNA expression in Runx3-/- mouse ovaries compared with that in wild-type (wt) mouse ovaries at the age of 8 weeks. In situ hybridization analysis showed that the percentages of Cyp11a1 mRNA-expressing theca cells in follicles of Runx3-/- mice were decreased compared with those of wt mice. In accord with the alterations in Runx3-/- mouse ovaries, Kiss1 mRNA levels in ARC were increased, whereas mRNA levels of kisspeptin in AVPV were decreased, and gonadotropin-releasing hormone in the preoptic area and follicle-stimulating hormone ß subunit gene were increased in Runx3-/- mice. Following an ovarian transplantation experiment between Runx3-/- mice and wt mice, corpora lutea were observed when ovaries from Runx3-/- mice were transplanted into wt mice, but not when those from wt mice were transplanted into Runx3-/- mice, suggesting that Runx3 in the hypothalamo-pituitary system may drive gonadotropin release to induce ovulation in the ovary. These findings indicate that Runx3 plays a crucial role in the hypothalamo-pituitary-gonadal axis.

Functional characterization of the mouse melanocortin 3 receptor gene promoter.

Melanocortin receptor 3 (MC3R) is expressed in the hypothalamus and pituitary in humans and rodents, and is involved in the control of feeding, energy metabolism, and pituitary function. In the mouse pituitary, MC3R is detected in mammotrophs. This study aimed to clarify the regulatory mechanism for Mc3r expression in the mouse pituitary. The promoter activities of reporter constructs for the MC3R gene 5'-flanking region up to -4000 bp (transcription initiation site designated as +1) were analyzed. The promoter activity significantly increased in the -86/+109 construct, but decreased in the -38/+109 construct, indicating that the minimal promoter required for basal expression of Mc3r is located in the -86/+109 region. Putative binding sites for transcription factors AP-1 and ATF4 were found in the 5'-flanking region of Mc3r. Site-directed mutation or deletion of these sites affected the promoter activities. In gel-shift assays with a nuclear extract of mouse anterior pituitary cells, band-shifts were detected for both sites after the addition of the nuclear extract, and were decreased in the presence of excess unlabeled probe competitors. These results indicated that both sites were involved in the regulation of Mc3r expression in anterior pituitary cells. Estradiol-17ß treatment increased the Mc3r promoter activity, indicating that the gene is regulated by estradiol-17ß. In conclusion, we have demonstrated the minimum promoter region required for Mc3r expression, and identified two binding sites for AP-1 and ATF4 and in the 5' upstream-flanking region of Mc3r that are essential for Mc3r expression.

IGF-1 gene expression is differentially regulated by estrogen receptors α and ß in mouse endometrial stromal cells and ovarian granulosa cells.

Insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) is involved in regulations of reproductive functions in rats and mice. IGF-1 expression is regulated by estrogen in several reproductive organs including the uterus and ovary. Two types of estrogen receptor (ERα and ERß) are expressed in mouse uteri and ovaries, and it is unclear whether they differently mediate IGF-1 gene transcription. To clarify the roles of ERα and ERß, mouse endometrial stromal cells and ovarian granulosa cells were treated with ligands specific for individual estrogen receptors. In endometrial stromal cells, propyl-pyrazole-triol (PPT; ERα-selective agonist) increased Igf1 mRNA expression, which was suppressed by methyl-piperidino-pyrazole (MPP, ERα-selective antagonist), while diarylpropionitrile (DPN, ERß-potency selective agonist) increased Igf1 mRNA expression, which was inhibited by MPP but not by 4-[2-phenyl-5,7-bis(trifluoromethyl)pyrazolo[1,5-α]pyrimidin-3-yl]phenol (PHTPP; ERß antagonist). PHTPP enhanced the DPN-induced increase in Igf1 mRNA expression. In ovarian granulosa cells, E2 and DPN decreased Igf1 mRNA expression, whereas PPT did not affect Igf1 mRNA levels. In these cells, PHTPP inhibited the DPN-induced decrease in Igf1 mRNA expression. These results suggest that ERα facilitates Igf1 transcription, whereas ERß appears to inhibit Igf1 gene transcription in mouse endometrial stromal cells and ovarian granulosa cells.