Why are biting flies attracted to blue objects?

Diurnal biting flies are strongly attracted to blue objects. This behaviour is widely exploited for fly control, but its functional significance is debated. It is hypothesized that blue objects resemble animal hosts; blue surfaces resemble shaded resting places; and blue attraction is a by-product of attraction to polarized light. We computed the fly photoreceptor signals elicited by a large sample of leaf and animal integument reflectance spectra, viewed under open/cloudy illumination and under woodland shade. We then trained artificial neural networks (ANNs) to distinguish animals from leaf backgrounds, and shaded from unshaded surfaces, in order to find the optimal means of doing so based upon the sensory information available to a fly. After training, we challenged ANNs to classify blue objects used in fly control. Trained ANNs could make both discriminations with high accuracy. They discriminated animals from leaves based upon blue-green photoreceptor opponency and commonly misclassified blue objects as animals. Meanwhile, they discriminated shaded from unshaded stimuli using achromatic cues and never misclassified blue objects as shaded. We conclude that blue-green opponency is the most effective means of discriminating animals from leaf backgrounds using a fly's sensory information, and that blue objects resemble animal hosts through such mechanisms.

Entomological assessment of tsetse-borne trypanosome risk in the Shimba Hills human-wildlife-livestock interface, Kenya.

Shimba Hills is a wildlife area in Kenya and a major focus of tsetse-borne trypanosomes in East Africa. In Shimba Hills, tsetse-borne trypanosomes constrain animal health and smallholder livelihoods. However, epidemiological data to guide hotspot-targeted control of infections are limited. This study assessed the dynamics of tsetse-borne trypanosome risk in Shimba Hills with the objective to describe infection hotspots for targeted control. Tsetse flies (n = 696) collected in field surveys between November 2018 and September 2019 in Shimba Hills were characterized for chronological age and phenotypic sizes and screened for trypanosome and cattle DNA. Entomological inoculation rates for trypanosome risk assessment were derived from the product of fly abundance and molecular rates of vector infection and confirmed cattle bloodmeals in tsetse flies. In addition, cattle health indicators including anemia scores were assessed in contemporaneous parasitological surveys that screened livestock blood samples (n = 1,417) for trypanosome using the buffy-coat technique. Compared with Glossina brevipalpis and G. austeni, G. pallidipes was the most abundant tsetse fly species in Shimba Hills and had a wider spatial distribution and greater likelihood for infectious bites on cattle. The risk of cattle infection was similar along the Shimba Hills human-wildlife-livestock interface and high within one thousand meters of the wildlife reserve boundary. Trypanosomes in tsetse flies were highly diverse and included parasites of wild-suids probably acquired from warthogs in Shimba Hills. Age and phenotypic sizes were similar between tsetse fly populations and did not affect the probability of infection or cattle bloodmeals in the vectors. Anemia was more likely in trypanosome-positive cattle whilst parasitological infection rates in cattle samples maintained a weak relationship with entomological inoculation rates probably because of the limited time scale of sample collection. Trypanosome risk in Shimba Hills is high in locations close to the wildlife reserve and driven by G. pallidipes infectious bites on cattle. Therefore, trypanosome vector control programmes in the area should be designed to reduce G. pallidipes abundance and tailored to target sites close to the wildlife reserve.

Tsetse Bloodmeal Analyses Incriminate the Common Warthog Phacochoerus africanus as an Important Cryptic Host of Animal Trypanosomes in Smallholder Cattle Farming Communities in Shimba Hills, Kenya.

Trypanosomes are endemic and retard cattle health in Shimba Hills, Kenya. Wildlife in the area act as reservoirs of the parasites. However, wild animal species that harbor and expose cattle to tsetse-borne trypanosomes are not well known in Shimba Hills. Using xeno-monitoring surveillance to investigate wild animal reservoirs and sources of trypanosomes in Shimba Hills, we screened 696 trypanosome-infected and uninfected tsetse flies for vertebrate DNA using multiple-gene PCR-High Resolution Melting analysis and amplicon sequencing. Results revealed that tsetse flies fed on 13 mammalian species, preferentially Phacochoerus africanus (warthogs) (17.39%, 95% CI: 14.56-20.21) and Bos taurus (cattle) (11.35%, 95% CI: 8.99-13.71). Some tsetse flies showed positive cases of bloodmeals from multiple hosts (3.45%, 95% CI: 2.09-4.81), including warthog and cattle (0.57%, 95% CI: 0.01-1.14). Importantly, tsetse flies that took bloodmeals from warthog had significant risk of infections with Trypanosoma vivax (5.79%, 95% CI: 1.57-10.00), T. congolense (7.44%, 95% CI: 2.70-12.18), and T. brucei sl (2.48%, 95% CI: -0.33-5.29). These findings implicate warthogs as important reservoirs of tsetse-borne trypanosomes affecting cattle in Shimba Hills and provide valuable epidemiological insights to underpin the parasites targeted management in Nagana vector control programs in the area.

Evaluation of improved coloured targets to control riverine tsetse in East Africa: A Bayesian approach.

BACKGROUND: Riverine tsetse (Glossina spp.) transmit Trypanosoma brucei gambiense which causes Gambian Human African Trypanosomiasis. Tiny Targets were developed for cost-effective riverine tsetse control, and comprise panels of insecticide-treated blue polyester fabric and black net that attract and kill tsetse. Versus typical blue polyesters, two putatively more attractive fabrics have been developed: Vestergaard ZeroFly blue, and violet. Violet was most attractive to savannah tsetse using large targets, but neither fabric has been tested for riverine tsetse using Tiny Targets. METHODS: We measured numbers of G. f. fuscipes attracted to electrified Tiny Targets in Kenya and Uganda. We compared violets, Vestergaard blues, and a typical blue polyester, using three replicated Latin squares experiments. We then employed Bayesian statistical analyses to generate expected catches for future target deployments incorporating uncertainty in model parameters, and prior knowledge from previous experiments. RESULTS: Expected catches for average future replicates of violet and Vestergaard blue targets were highly likely to exceed those for typical blue. Accounting for catch variability between replicates, it remained moderately probable (70-86% and 59-84%, respectively) that a given replicate of these targets would have a higher expected catch than typical blue on the same day at the same site. Meanwhile, expected catches for average violet replicates were, in general, moderately likely to exceed those for Vestergaard blue. However, the difference in medians was small, and accounting for catch variability, the probability that the expected catch for a violet replicate would exceed a Vestergaard blue equivalent was marginal (46-71%). CONCLUSION: Violet and Vestergaard ZeroFly blue are expected to outperform typical blue polyester in the Tiny Target configuration. Violet is unlikely to greatly outperform Vestergaard blue deployed in this way, but because violet is highly attractive to both riverine and savannah tsetse using different target designs, it may provide the more suitable general-purpose fabric.

Molecular characterization of Trypanosoma vivax in tsetse flies confirms the presence of the virulent Tvv4 genotype in Kenya: Potential implications for the control of trypanosomiasis in Shimba Hills.

Trypanosoma vivax is a vector-borne protozoan parasite of livestock endemic to Africa and South America. To date, fifteen genotypes of the parasite have been described in vertebrate and insect hosts in East Africa. However, information regarding T. vivax diversity remains limited in many endemic countries in the sub-region, including Kenya. Such information could deepen insight into the local epidemiology of animal trypanosomiasis in Shimba Hills, a wildlife area in southeast Kenya where T. vivax is endemic and infects livestock. We employed two-gene conventional-PCR-sequencing and phylogenetic analysis to characterize T. vivax genotypes in tsetse flies collected between November 2018 and September 2019 in the wildlife-livestock interface of the Shimba Hills National Reserve. Phylogenetic analysis of Internal Transcribed Spacer-1 (ITS-1) sequences of T. vivax isolates confirmed the presence of two T. vivax genotypes in Shimba Hills of which >80% of T. vivax isolates from tsetse flies clustered within the virulent Tvv4-genotype clade. Tsetse infections with the Tvv4 genotype were also confirmed based on 18S rRNA gene sequencing. Expanded gene characterization identified three closely related haplotypes within the Tvv4-clade. The Tvv4-isolates were detected in male and female Glossina pallidipes tsetse flies, most of which were collected from grasslands and within two kilometres of the Shimba Hills National Reserve boundary. Considering that T. vivax is the most common trypanosome in the Shimba Hills area and causes severe clinical conditions in livestock, the Tvv4 genotype reported here for the first time in Kenya contributes to our understanding of these pathologies. The effectiveness of trypanocidal drugs in the management of Tvv4 is presently not clearly understood. Therefore, the parasite management in Shimba Hills should focus on vector control to reduce the density of G. pallidipes, especially in grasslands near the wildlife protectorate.

Anaplasma and Theileria Pathogens in Cattle of Lambwe Valley, Kenya: A Case for Pro-Active Surveillance in the Wildlife-Livestock Interface.

Tick-borne pathogens (TBPs) are major constraints to livestock production and a threat to public health in Africa. This cross-sectional study investigated the risk of infection with TBPs in cattle of Lambwe Valley, Kenya. Blood samples of 680 zebu cattle from 95 herds in six geospatial clusters within 5 km of Ruma National Park were screened for bacterial and protozoan TBPs by high-resolution melting analysis and sequencing of PCR products. We detected Anaplasma bovis (17.4%), Anaplasma platys (16.9%), Anaplasma marginale (0.6%), Theileria velifera (40%), and Theileria mutans (25.7%), as well as an Anaplasma sp. (11.6%) that matched recently reported Anaplasma sp. sequences from Ethiopia. Babesia, Rickettsia, and Ehrlichia spp. were not detected. The animal and herd-level prevalences for TBPs were 78.5% (95% confidence intervals (CI): 75.3, 81.5) and 95.8% (95% CI: 91.8, 99.8), respectively. About 31.6% of cattle were co-infected with 13 combinations of TBPs. The prevalence of TBPs differed between clusters and age, but the risk of infection was not associated with sex, herd size, or the distance of homesteads from Ruma. This study adds insight into the epidemiology of TBPs around Ruma and highlights the need for proactive surveillance of TBPs in livestock-wildlife interfaces.

Gravid Anopheles gambiae sensu stricto avoid ovipositing in Bermuda grass hay infusion and it's volatiles in two choice egg-count bioassays.

BACKGROUND: A number of mosquito species in the Culex and Aedes genera prefer to lay eggs in Bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon) hay infusions compared to water alone. These mosquitoes are attracted to volatile compounds from the hay infusions making the infusions effective baits in gravid traps used for monitoring vectors of arboviral and filarial pathogens. Since Bermuda grass is abundant and widespread, it is plausible to explore infusions made from it as a potential low cost bait for outdoor monitoring of the elusive malaria vector Anopheles gambiae s.s. METHODS: This study investigated preferential egg laying of individual An. gambiae s.s. in hay infusion or in tap water treated with volatiles detected in hay infusion headspace compared to tap water alone, using two-choice egg-count bioassays. Infusions were prepared by mixing 90 g of dried Bermuda grass (hay) with 24 L of unchlorinated tap water in a bucket, and leaving it for 3 days at ambient temperature and humidity. The volatiles in the headspace of the hay infusion were sampled with Tenax TA traps for 20 h and analysed using gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. RESULTS: In total, 18 volatiles were detected in the infusion headspace. Nine of the detected compounds and nonanal were selected for bioassays. Eight of the selected compounds have previously been suggested to attract/stimulate egg laying in An. gambiae s.s. Gravid females were significantly (p < 0.05) less likely to lay eggs in hay infusion dilutions of 25, 50 and 100 % and in tap water containing any of six compounds (3-methylbutanol, phenol, 4-methylphenol, nonanal, indole, and 3-methylindole) compared to tap water alone. The oviposition response to 10 % hay infusion or any one of the remaining four volatiles (4-hepten-1-ol, phenylmethanol, 2-phenylethanol, or 4-ethylphenol) did not differ from that in tap water. CONCLUSIONS: Anopheles gambiae s.s. prefers to lay eggs in tap water rather than Bermuda grass hay infusion. This avoidance of the hay infusion appears to be mediated by volatile organic compounds from the infusion. It is, therefore, unlikely that Bermuda grass hay infusion as formulated and used in gravid traps for Culex and Aedes mosquitoes will be suitable baits for monitoring gravid An. gambiae s.s.

Analysing chemical attraction of gravid Anopheles gambiae sensu stricto with modified BG-Sentinel traps.

BACKGROUND: Cues that guide gravid Anopheles gambiae sensu lato to oviposition sites can be manipulated to create new strategies for monitoring and controlling malaria vectors. However, progress towards identifying such cues is slow in part due to the lack of appropriate tools for investigating long-range attraction to putative oviposition substrates. This study aimed to develop a relatively easy-to-use bioassay system that can effectively analyse chemical attraction of gravid Anopheles gambiae sensu stricto. METHODS: BG-Sentinel™ mosquito traps that use fans to dispense odourants were modified to contain aqueous substrates. Choice tests with two identical traps set in an 80 m(2) screened semi-field system were used to analyse the catch efficacy of the traps and the effectiveness of the bioassay. A different batch of 200 gravid An. gambiae s.s. was released on every experimental night. Choices tested were (1) distilled versus distilled water (baseline) and (2) distilled water versus soil infusion. Further, comparisons were made of distilled water and soil infusions both containing 150 g/l of Sodium Chloride (NaCl). Sodium Chloride is known to affect the release rate of volatiles from organic substrates. RESULTS: When both traps contained distilled water, 45% (95 confidence interval (CI) 33-57%) of all released mosquitoes were trapped. The proportion increased to 84% (95 CI 73-91%) when traps contained soil infusions. In choice tests, a gravid female was twice as likely to be trapped in the test trap with soil infusion as in the trap with distilled water (odds ratio (OR) 1.8, 95% CI 1.3-2.6). Furthermore, the attraction of gravid females towards the test trap with infusion more than tripled (OR 3.4, 95% CI 2.4-4.8) when salt was added to the substrates. CONCLUSION: Minor modifications of the BG-Sentinel™ mosquito trap turned it into a powerful bioassay tool for evaluating the orientation of gravid mosquitoes to putative oviposition substrates using olfaction. This study describes a useful tool for investigating olfactory attraction of gravid An. gambiae s.s. and provides additional evidence that gravid mosquitoes of this species are attracted to and can be baited with attractive substrates such as organic infusions over a distance of several metres.

Analysing the oviposition behaviour of malaria mosquitoes: design considerations for improving two-choice egg count experiments.

BACKGROUND: Choice egg-count bioassays are a popular tool for analysing oviposition substrate preferences of gravid mosquitoes. This study aimed at improving the design of two-choice experiments for measuring oviposition substrates preferences of the malaria vector Anopheles gambiae senso lato, a mosquito that lays single eggs. METHODS: In order to achieve high egg-laying success of female An. gambiae sensu stricto (s.s.) and Anopheles arabiensis mosquitoes in experiments, four factors were evaluated: (1) the time provided for mating; (2) the impact of cage size, mosquito age and female body size on insemination; (3) the peak oviposition time; and, (4) the host sources of blood meal. Choice bioassays, with one mosquito released in each cage containing two oviposition cups both with the same oviposition substrate (100 ml water), were used to measure and adjust for egg-laying characteristics of the species. Based on these characteristics an improved design for the egg-count bioassay is proposed. RESULTS: High oviposition rates [84%, 95% confidence interval (CI) 77-89%] were achieved when 300 male and 300 blood-fed female An. gambiae s.s. were held together in a cage for 4 days. The chances for oviposition dropped (odds ratio 0.30; 95% CI 0.14-0.66) when human host source of blood meal was substituted with a rabbit but egg numbers per female were not affected. The number of eggs laid by individual mosquitoes was overdispersed (median = 52, eggs, interquartile range 1-214) and the numbers of eggs laid differed widely between replicates, leading to a highly heterogeneous variance between groups and/or rounds of experiments. Moreover, one-third of mosquitoes laid eggs unequally in both cups with similar substrates giving the illusion of choice. Sample size estimations illustrate that it takes 165 individual mosquitoes to power bioassays sufficiently (power = 0.8, p = 0.05) to detect a 15% shift in comparative preferences of two treatments. CONCLUSION: Two-choice egg count bioassays with Anopheles are best done with a two-tier design that (1) implements a parallel series of experiments with mosquitoes given a choice of two identical substrates choices and, (2) uses a single mosquito in each test cage rather than groups of mosquitoes to assess the preference of a test or control solution. This approach, with sufficient replication, lowers the risk detecting pseudopreferences.

Discovery of an oviposition attractant for gravid malaria vectors of the Anopheles gambiae species complex.

BACKGROUND: New strategies are needed to manage malaria vector populations that resist insecticides and bite outdoors. This study describes a breakthrough in developing 'attract and kill' strategies targeting gravid females by identifying and evaluating an oviposition attractant for Anopheles gambiae s.l. METHODS: Previously, the authors found that gravid An. gambiae s.s. females were two times more likely to lay eggs in lake water infused for six days with soil from a natural oviposition site in western Kenya compared to lake water alone or to the same but autoclaved infusion. Here, the volatile chemicals released from these substrates were analysed with a gas-chromatograph coupled to a mass-spectrometer (GC-MS). Furthermore, the behavioural responses of gravid females to one of the compounds identified were evaluated in dual choice egg-count bioassays, in dual-choice semi-field experiments with odour-baited traps and in field bioassays. RESULTS: One of the soil infusion volatiles was readily identified as the sesquiterpene alcohol cedrol. Its widespread presence in natural aquatic habitats in the study area was confirmed by analysing the chemical headspace of 116 water samples collected from different aquatic sites in the field and was therefore selected for evaluation in oviposition bioassays. Twice as many gravid females were attracted to cedrol-treated water than to water alone in two choice cage bioassays (odds ratio (OR) 1.84; 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.16-2.91) and in experiments conducted in large-screened cages with free-flying mosquitoes (OR 1.92; 95% CI 1.63-2.27). When tested in the field, wild malaria vector females were three times more likely to be collected in the traps baited with cedrol than in the traps containing water alone (OR 3.3; 95% CI 1.4-7.9). CONCLUSION: Cedrol is the first compound confirmed as an oviposition attractant for gravid An. gambiae s.l. This finding paves the way for developing new 'attract and kill strategies' for malaria vector control.

Water vapour is a pre-oviposition attractant for the malaria vector Anopheles gambiae sensu stricto.

BACKGROUND: To date no semiochemicals affecting the pre-oviposition behaviour of the malaria vector Anopheles gambiae sensu lato have been described. Water vapour must be the major chemical signal emanating from a potential larval habitat, and although one might expect that gravid An. gambiae s.l. detect and respond to water vapour in their search for an aquatic habitat, this has never been experimentally confirmed for this species. This study aimed to investigate the role of relative humidity or water vapour as a general cue for inducing gravid An. gambiae sensu stricto to make orientated movements towards the source. METHODS: Three experiments were carried out with insectary-reared An. gambiae s.s. One with unfed females and two with gravid females during their peak oviposition time in the early evening. First, unfed females and gravid females were tested separately in still air where a humidity difference was established between opposite ends of a WHO bioassay tube and mosquitoes released individually in the centre of the tube. Movement of mosquitoes to either low or high humidity was recorded. Additionally, gravid mosquitoes were released into a larger air-flow olfactometer and responses measured towards collection chambers that contained cups filled with water or empty cups. RESULTS: Unfed females equally dispersed in the small bioassay tubes to areas of high and low humidity (mean 50% (95% confidence interval (CI) 38-62%). In contrast, gravid females were 2.4 times (95% CI 1.3-4.7) more likely to move towards high humidity than unfed females. The results were even more pronounced in the airflow olfactometer. Gravid females were 10.6 times (95% CI 5.4-20.8) more likely to enter the chamber with water than a dry chamber. CONCLUSIONS: Water vapour is a strong pre-oviposition attractant to gravid An. gambiae s.s. in still and moving air and is likely to be a general cue used by mosquitoes for locating aquatic habitats.

Attraction of Anopheles gambiae to odour baits augmented with heat and moisture.

BACKGROUND: The search for a standard human surrogate in the form of a synthetic mosquito attractant has been the goal of many laboratories around the world. Besides alleviating the occupational risk subjected to volunteers participating in vector surveillance and control, discovery of potent attractants underpins the development and deployment of mass trapping devices for controlling mosquito-borne diseases. METHODS: A dual-port olfactometer was used to assess behavioural responses of female Anopheles gambiae mosquitoes towards synthetic versus natural (whole human emanations and worn socks) attractants. The synthetic attractants included a standard blend consisting of ammonia, carbon dioxide and water; and Ifakara blend 1 (IB1) consisting of various aliphatic carboxylic acids. Natural attractants were obtained from two males known to be less and highly attractive (LA and HA, respectively) to the mosquitoes. Mosquito responses to the volunteers' worn socks were also investigated. The effect of heat (25-27 degrees C) and moisture (75-85%) on the mosquito behavioural responses was determined. RESULTS: A significantly higher proportion of mosquitoes was attracted to each volunteer when compared to the standard blend. Whereas the proportion of mosquitoes attracted to person LA versus IB1 (49% versus 51%, respectively; P = 0.417) or his worn socks did not differ (61% versus 39%, respectively; P = 0.163), far more mosquitoes were attracted to person HA relative to IB1 (96% versus 4%; P = 0.001) or his worn socks (91% versus 9%; P = 0.001). Person HA attracted a significantly higher proportion of mosquitoes than his worn socks, the standard blend and IB1 when these were augmented with heat, moisture or both (P = 0.001). Similar results were obtained with person LA except that the proportion of mosquitoes attracted to him versus his worn sock augmented with heat (P = 0.65) or IB1 augmented with heat and moisture (P = 0.416) did not differ significantly. CONCLUSIONS: These findings indicate that olfactory cues are key mediators of the mosquito host-seeking process and that heat and moisture play a minor role. The need for a standard, highly stringent positive control for screening synthetic attractants is strongly highlighted.