Human and Non-Human Primate Coexistence in Argentina: Conflicts and Solutions.

There are five different primate species inhabiting widely distinct ecoregions in Argentina. Each of them faces various threats in terms of conservation and conflicts that hamper their ability to coexist with human populations. We present here some of the drivers known to be the causes of conflicts between humans and primates in the southernmost area of distribution of Latin American primates. We focus our synthesis on two of the biggest sources of conflict: the effects of different anthropogenic disturbances, and human misconceptions concerning the role of primates in the ecosystem. In each section, we briefly characterize the conflicts worldwide and then provide specific cases and examples from Argentina. In the last part of the manuscript, we further describe some ongoing national and regional educational, research, and conservation approaches to mitigate those effects.

Road Infrastructure and Primate Conservation: Introducing the Global Primate Roadkill Database.

As road infrastructure networks rapidly expand globally, especially in the tropics, previously continuous habitats are being fragmented, resulting in more frequent wildlife-vehicle collisions (WVC). Primates are widespread throughout many sub-/tropical countries, and as their habitats are fragmented, they are increasingly at risk of WVC. We created the Global Primate Roadkill Database (GPRD), the largest available standardized database of primate roadkill incidents. We obtained data from published papers, un-published and citizen science databases, anecdotal reports, news reports, and social media posts. Here, we describe the collection methods for the GPRD and present the most up-to-date version of the database in full. For each primate roadkill incident, we recorded the species killed, the exact location, and the year and month the roadkill was observed. At the time of publication, the GPRD includes 2862 individual primate roadkill records from 41 countries. As primates range in more than twice as many countries, the absence of data from these countries is not necessarily indicative of a lack of primate vehicular collisions. Given the value of these data for addressing both local and global research questions, we encourage conservationists and citizen scientists to contribute to the GPRD so that, together, we can better understand the impact road infrastructure has on primates and evaluate measures which may help mitigate risk-prone areas or species.

Yellow fever impact on brown howler monkeys (Alouatta guariba clamitans) in Argentina: a metamodelling approach based on population viability analysis and epidemiological dynamics

In South America, yellow fever (YF) is an established infectious disease that has been identified outside of its traditional endemic areas, affecting human and nonhuman primate (NHP) populations. In the epidemics that occurred in Argentina between 2007-2009, several outbreaks affecting humans and howler monkeys (Alouatta spp) were reported, highlighting the importance of this disease in the context of conservation medicine and public health policies. Considering the lack of information about YF dynamics in New World NHP, our main goal was to apply modelling tools to better understand YF transmission dynamics among endangered brown howler monkey (Alouatta guariba clamitans) populations in northeastern Argentina. Two complementary modelling tools were used to evaluate brown howler population dynamics in the presence of the disease: Vortex, a stochastic demographic simulation model, and Outbreak, a stochastic disease epidemiology simulation. The baseline model of YF disease epidemiology predicted a very high probability of population decline over the next 100 years. We believe the modelling approach discussed here is a reasonable description of the disease and its effects on the howler monkey population and can be useful to support evidence-based decision-making to guide actions at a regional level.

Yellow fever impact on brown howler monkeys (Alouatta guariba clamitans) in Argentina: a metamodelling approach based on population viability analysis and epidemiological dynamics.

In South America, yellow fever (YF) is an established infectious disease that has been identified outside of its traditional endemic areas, affecting human and nonhuman primate (NHP) populations. In the epidemics that occurred in Argentina between 2007-2009, several outbreaks affecting humans and howler monkeys (Alouatta spp) were reported, highlighting the importance of this disease in the context of conservation medicine and public health policies. Considering the lack of information about YF dynamics in New World NHP, our main goal was to apply modelling tools to better understand YF transmission dynamics among endangered brown howler monkey (Alouatta guariba clamitans) populations in northeastern Argentina. Two complementary modelling tools were used to evaluate brown howler population dynamics in the presence of the disease: Vortex, a stochastic demographic simulation model, and Outbreak, a stochastic disease epidemiology simulation. The baseline model of YF disease epidemiology predicted a very high probability of population decline over the next 100 years. We believe the modelling approach discussed here is a reasonable description of the disease and its effects on the howler monkey population and can be useful to support evidence-based decision-making to guide actions at a regional level.

Male reproductive strategies in black and gold howler monkeys (Alouatta caraya).

Behavioral and demographic factors such as group size, social structure, dispersal patterns, and mating systems affect male reproductive success. In the present study, we analyze the relationship between social structure, genetic relatedness of adult males and offspring paternity in one population of Alouatta caraya inhabiting a continuous forest in Northern Argentina. After 14 months of behavioral studies and genotyping 11 microsatellites, we found that dominant or central males achieved greater mating success and fathered all the offspring conceived during our study in two multimale-multifemale groups (both including three adult males). Although skewed toward the dominant males, females copulated with almost all resident males and with extra group males. We found significantly fewer agonistic interactions between adult males in the group with fewer females and where males were more genetically related to each other (average relatedness r = 0.237; 0.015 int/ind/hr vs. r = 0.02; 0.029 int/ind/hr). Paternity was also analyzed in two other neighboring groups which also showed strong skew to one male over a 2-year period. These results reveal that even though female black and gold howlers mate with many males, infants are typically fathered by one dominant male.

Habitat fragmentation and population size of the black and gold howler monkey (Alouatta caraya) in a semideciduous forest in Northern Argentina.

A population of black and gold howler monkeys (Alouatta caraya) living near the southern limit of its distribution in a semideciduous forest located in northern Argentina was studied in 2003 to evaluate the possible effects of habitat fragmentation - owing to logging - on its density and social organization within it. Aerial photographs taken in 1982, 1992, and 2001 were used to compare maps of vegetation. These maps were used to evaluate changes in the area covered by forest fragments. From March to June 2003, 10-day monthly surveys of howlers were made in each fragment. A total of 232 individual howlers were counted, belonging to 34 groups plus a solitary adult female. Groups ranged from 2 to 19 individuals (mean = 6.82, SD = 4.23), and 21% of the groups contained more than one adult male. Adults accounted for 55% of the individuals, immatures for 45%, and infants represented 13% of the total. Data obtained were compared with information available for the same population for 1982 and 1995. Results revealed no significant changes in the area of fragments, the crude and ecological density of howlers, and group composition. Group sizes and group composition of howlers suggest that the population remained stable over the past 22 years. The density, number of groups, and individuals appears not to be affected by fragmentation and logging, but crude density was low compared with other less-disturbed habitats. The status of the population remains uncertain owing to isolation, and because there are no protected areas to ensure its stability for the future.