Helminth Community Structure of Tits Cyanistes caeruleus and Parus major (Paridae) during Their Autumn Migration on the Southern Baltic Coast.

The research problem undertaken in this study is to determine the scale of infection of Eurasian blue tit Cyanistes caeruleus and Great tit Parus major and the biological diversity of their internal parasites, helminths. The aim of the study is to gain new knowledge about the structure of the helminth communities of the Eurasian blue tit and Great tit on the southern coast of the Baltic Sea during autumn migration to their wintering grounds. Helminths of tits were collected in 2008-2012 on the southern coast of the Baltic Sea in Poland. PAST v. 2.11 software was used for the calculations. Barcoding DNA was used to identify trematodes initially classified based on morphological characters to the genera Leucochloridium and Urogonimus. Cestodes Anonchotaenia globata were recorded for the first time in Poland. The Eurasian blue tit is a new host in Poland for three species of helminths: cestode Monosertum parinum and filarial nematodes, Cardiofilaria pavlovskyi, and Diplotriaena henryi. The Great tit is a new host in Poland for trematode Urogonimus macrostomus, cestode A. globata and M. parinum, and filarial nematode Diplotriaena obtusa. The nematode C. pavlovskyi was the species most frequently recorded in both host species. A high degree of similarity was found between the component communities and infracommunities of helminths in Eurasian blue tit and Great tit. The new information provided in this study has increased our knowledge of the transmission of helminths in Central Europe.

The impact of global climate change on the spread of parasitic nematodes

Climate changes may influence the frequency, intensity and geographical distribution of parasites, directly affecting their dispersive stages in the environment (eggs, larvae) and, indirectly, the larvae living mainly in invertebrate intermediate hosts. In biologically diverse nematodes climate warming contributes to the increase in the range of distribution, colonization of new hosts and modification of their development cycles. This is particularly acute in the Arctic and pertains, for instance, to nematodes Ostertagia gruehneri and Setaria tundra parasitizing reindeer Rangifer tarandus and Umingmakstrongylus pallikuukensis in musk oxen (Ovibos moschatus). Increase in range expansion of mosquitoes Culicidae caused that nematodes of the genus Dirofilaria, especially D. repens, have been listed in autochthonous invasions even in the northern and eastern European countries. In addition, extended range of occurrence is also shown by Ancylostoma braziliense ­ a parasite of carnivores in the tropical and subtropical countries. In recent years over 20 cases of autochthonous creeping eruption (CE) caused by cutanea larva migrans (CLM) A. braziliense were detected in people in southern Europe (Italy, Spain, France, Germany).

Helminths in migrating and wintering birds recorded in Poland.

Among 544 species of helminths recorded in birds on the territory of Poland, probably some (17 species of Digenea, 21 Cestoda, 13 Nematoda and 5 Acanthocephala) do not belong to the native fauna. These are helminths obtained in mature stage from birds shortly after their arrival from wintering grounds, or from foreign populations wintering with us, or being in the course of spring or autumn migration through the area of our country. In general, these helminth species have been recorded sporadically in the examined birds.

Epizootic situation of mouflon Ovis aries musimon in Lower Silesia on the basis of coproscopic examinations.

Coproscopic examinations of mouflons Ovis aries musimon from four forest districts of Lower Silesia performed in spring and autumn from 2012 to 2014 demonstrated the presence of pulmonary nematodes and intestinal parasites, including coccidia of the genus Eimeria. Prevalence of pulmonary nematodes (mainly Muellerius capillaris) amounted to 69.78%, intestinal nematodes--56.11% and coccidia of the genus Eimeria--44.6%. The number of oocysts, eggs of intestinal helminths and larvae of pulmonary nematodes was low. Most frequently the parasites occurred in mouflons from the Jugów forest district, which is related to contact with sheep grazed in the area.

New records of nematodes of passerine migratory birds.

Parasitological examination of three passerine bird species: the Red-backed Shrike Lanius collurio, Eurasian Golden Oriole Oriolus oriolus and Yellow Wagtail Motacilla flava, revealed the presence of the nematodes Acuaria subula, Diplotriaena ozouxi, Viguiera euryoptera and Microtetrameres inermis. All the birds were obtained in the spring (April-May); the nematodes found were mature, which indicates infection in the hosts' wintering grounds. The gizzard worm Acuaria subula is a new record from Motacilla flava in Europe. Viguiera euryoptera and Diplotriaena ozouxi are new to the Polish fauna.

The Polish collection of parasitic helminths (a report on realization of works concerning fusion of parasitic collections dispersed among different scientific institutions).

The paper presents the results of works on preparation of a proper museum collection of parasitic helminths gathered by the Polish scientists and dispersed in various scientific institutions. The collection composed of 11 author's collections and a special collection of available typical series of species described by the Polish authors has been deposited in the Museum of Natural History of Wroclaw University. It includes almost 16.000 slides with 90 taxons of Monogenea, 251 Trematoda, 144 Cestoda, 43 Nematoda, 11 Acanthocephala, in total 486 nominal species and 53 taxons of genus level. Among them 12 species appear new for fauna of Poland; for 57 species new hosts in Polish territory have been recorded; two new species of Cestoda have been described in separate publications. A special paragraph contains a checklist of all species described by the Polish scientists with information whether they are available in any other collection. Detailed information about every deposited slide is given in the Database available online at http://www.helminths.eu .

The reasons for helminth infections in hosts.

A maximum capacity of the host to parasites is very diverse so intensive infections (hiperinfections) are noticed repeatedly. The reasons for their occurrence can be divided based on the factors related to the biology and ecology of hosts: age, body size, food habits, anatomical and behavioral factors, monoxenous life cycle of parasites, environmental changes, contamination of the environment by the dispersion forms of parasites and new parasite-host relationships.

New records of helminth species and their hosts in Poland.

Information on species of parasitic helminths native to Poland is provided by the Pasozytnicze helminty Polski. Gatunki. Zywiciele. Biale Plamy. Until the middle of 2007, there were 1205 species of recorded helminths including 126 species of Monogenea, 338 of Trematoda (Digenea), 279 of Cestoda, 427 of Nematoda and 35 of Acanthocephala. They represented 32.9% of the species recorded in Europe (i.e., registered in the Fauna Europaea database). During the following three years up to the middle of 2010, 64 new species of Polish helminths were detected: 7 Monogenea, 15 Trematoda (Digenea), 21 Cestoda, 20 Nematoda and one Acanthocephala. Most hosts of the new helminth species were reported from birds (40 species), but also from fish (13 species) and mammals (10 species). Only one new species of helminth was detected in amphibians.

New records of digenean flukes (Trematoda) in birds in Poland.

Eleven new records of digenean species are reported in birds in Poland, i.e. Tylodelphys immer found in Gavia stellata, Strigea vanderbrokae in Pernis apivorus, Echinostoma academica in Numenius arquata, Echinochasmus euryporus in Buteo buteo, Patagifer parvispinosus and Petasiger grandivesicularis in Tachybaptus ruficollis, Notocotyloides petasatus in Calidris alpina, Plagiorchis arcuatus in Corvus cornix, Leyogonimus polyoon in Gallinula chloropus and Fulica atra, Lyperosomum alaudae in Sylvia atricapilla and Alauda arvenis, and Collyricloides massanae in Turdus merula. The latter finding constitutes a new host record (globally).

[Non-indigenous and non-specific parasitic nematodes--the background and the consequences]. / Zawleczone i niespecyficzne nicienie pasozytnicze--przyczyny i skutki.

Introduction of the host is the main reason behind introduction of the parasite, e. g., nematodes. The introduction of the Japanese eel (Anguilla japonica) in Europe in the 1980s resulted in expansion of the swimbladder nematode Anguillicola crassus which soon invaded not only populations of the European eel (A. anguilla), but also other local fish. The raccoon (Procyon lotor) is native to North America. It is the specific host of Strongyloides procyonis and Baylisascaris procyonis. More than 90 species of wild and domestical bird and mammal species, including humans, have been infected with B. procyonis larvae. The larvae enter various organs of paratenic hosts, particularly the central nervous system and eye, causing severe diseases and death. Asthworthius sidemi--a blood-succking, abomasal nematode, a specific parasite of the Asiatic sika deer (Cervus nippon) and sambar deer (C. unicolor)--was first introduced with its hosts into countries adjacent to Poland. A. sidemi is especially dangerous to the European bison (Bison bonasus) which is its new host. The bison populations, in both Bialowieza Primaeval Forest and the Bieszczady Mts, sometimes show a 100% prevalence and mass infection intensity. Imported animals, sold in pet shops or available from private breeding firms, often carry non-native parasites. For example, the red-eared tortoise (Trachemys scripta elegans) and Afgan tortoise (Agrionemys horsfieldii) carry nematodes Angusticaecum holopterum, Tachygonetria lobata and T. robusta. Migratory birds in their wintering grounds are often infected with parasites which are usually not constant components of the native fauna, but sometimes nematodes could find a suitable conditions to complete their life cycle. E.g. Cyathosoma microspiculum, species specific to cormorants (Phalacrocorax carbo) and previously recorded only from Asia and the Asian-European boudary, was able complete the life cycle in Poland. The increasingly frequent travels to countries with different climatic conditions contribute to introduction of non-native nematodes: Dirofilaria immitis--in dogs, D. repens or Ancylostoma brasiliense--in humans.

[Baylisascariasis--a new dangerous zoonosis]. / Baylisaskarioza--nowa niebezpieczna zoonoza.

Baylisascaris procyonis is a large nematode of the order Ascaridida, specific for raccoon (Procyon lotor). In North America, raccoons are extremely common in rural, suburban, and urban settings, where they have become well adapted to living alongside people. In the 1930s raccoons were introduced into Europe (i. a. Poland) and Asia for the commercial fur trade and into Japan as pets. The prevalence of B. procyonis infection in raccoons is often high, and infected animals can disseminate in their feces enormous numbers of parasite eggs. Raccoons defecate in preferred communal sites, termed latrines which play a vital role in the transmission dynamics of B. procyonis. Intestinal infections of non-raccoon species have been documented in dogs, rabbits in Japan and experimentally in opossums. Over 100 species mammals and birds can be paratenic host for B. procyonis. This parasite has emerged in recent years as one of the most serious causes of zoonotic visceral, ocular, and neural larva migrans and, in particular, of devastating encephalitis in young children. Several probable or confirmed cases of severe or fatal human B. procyonis infection have been documented. Diagnosis of Baylisascaris encephalitis is based on clinical central nervous system disease, peripheral and cerebrospinal fluid eosinophilia, deep white matter lesions visible by magnetic resonance imaging, and positive results of serologic tests. Treatment efficacy in clinical cases is poor, but albendazole prevents disease if given promptly after infection. While human baylisascariasis appears to be rare, the devastating neurologic disease that is caused by this infection and the lack of effective treatment make it a disease of public health importance. Certain characteristics of B. procyonis make it a feasible bioterrorist agent, because eggs can survive in the environment for extended periods of time, and the infectious dose of B. procyonis is relatively low. Moreover, the organism causes a severe, frequently fatal infection in humans, and no effective therapy or vaccine exists.

[New hosts of some nematodes--parasites of Passeriformes]. / Nowi zywiciele niektórych nicieni--pasozytów ptaków wróblowych (Passeriformes).

Parasitic nematodes very rarely exist in birds that are completely or predominantly herbivorous. The investigation of the helminth fauna of Passeriformes in the region of Lower Silesia revealed new hosts for some nematode species. We found in Acrocephalus scirpaceus--Acuaria subula and Microtetrameres inermis; in Fringilla coelebs and in Luscinia megarhynchos--Dispharynx nasuta; in Passer montanus--Capillaria angusta; in Phylloscopus trochiloides--Acuaria subula as well in Phylloscopus collybita--Microtetrameres sp. These nematodes have not been so far reported from these bird species.

[Helminths of Falco peregrinus Tunstall, 1771 from Szczecin area]. / Helminty dzikiego sokola wedrownego Falco peregrinus Tunstall, 1771 pochodzacego ze Szczecina.

In 2006, an emaciated female peregrine falcon Falco peregrinus was found near its nest, and died soon after. Parasitological research involved digestive tract and respiratory system, kidney and liver. In air sacs, nematode Serratospiculum tendo (Nitzsch, 1857), which causes the falcon disease serratospiculiasis, was found, and in the digestive tract trematodes Strigeafalconis Szidat, 1928, Conodiplostomum spathula (Creplin, 1829), and a cestode Cladotaenia cylindracea (Bloch, 1782).

[Host specificity of nematodes in Poland]. / Specyficznosc zywicielska krajowych nicieni.

Nematodes, which are the most diverse group of helminths in many aspects, constitute a good model for analysis of specificity. Among this group, we found monoxenous and stenoxenous species with a limited range of hosts and also oligoxenous and polyxenous species with a wide range of hosts. Order Oxyurida is represented mainly by monoxenous and stenoxenous species. The species from orders Strongylida, Spirurida and Ascaridida are characterized by all types of specificity while oligoxenous and polyxenous species are typical for capillariid nematodes (Enoplida). But some data show that the level of specificity is more determined by biology and ecology of host-parasite relationship than by taxonomic status.

[The role of paratenic hosts in the life cycles of helminths]. / Rola zywicieli paratenicznych w cyklach rozwojowych helmintów.

Paratenic hosts, especially of nematodes, play a major role in spreading many parasite species. The phenomenon of "paratenic parasitism" is illustrated by examples of development of Syngamus trachea and Proteocephalus longicollis. Moravec introduced a concept of "natural paratenic host" for P. longicollis infecting common sculpion, Cottus gobio, in Europe. According to Kennedy, paratenic host richness of Anguillicola crassus is an adaptation to new environmental conditions. New studies, involving laboratorial experiments, have shown that the nematodes parasitizing fishes, with a single intermediate host in their life cycles, acquired numerous paratenic hosts. It also evident that a paratenic host can be present or absent in the life cycles of related (congeneric) parasite species (Bothriocephalus gregarious and B. barbatus; Halipegus occidentalis and H. ovocaudatus; Dracunculus insignis and D. medinensis). Sometimes infective larvae of parasites are reported in accidental hosts, which do not occur in the food chain of the definitive host. Paratenic host is more an ecological than a physiological phenomenon in the transmission of helminths. Under extreme environmental conditions the transmission of parasites is faciliated mainly by paratenic hosts (e.g., Toxascaris leonina or Toxocara sp. occurring in zoological gardens where sanitation is rigorously observed).

[The evaluation of soil contamination with geohelminth eggs in the area of Wroclaw, Poland]. / Ocena stanu skazenia gleby jajami geohelmintów na terenie Wroclawia.

The main source of many zoonoses is soil contaminated with feline and canine faeces. The aim of this study was to examine the degree of soil contamination with geohelminth eggs in the area of Wroclaw. Within 2006-2007 a total of 185 soil samples (parks, backyards, playgrounds and city squares) from area were collected and then examined using flotation technique in saturated sodium nitrate. The helminth eggs were found in 37 (20%) samples. The highest rate of contamination was in the city squares (38.2%). The eggs were also found in 29.1% of backyards. Parks and playgrounds with sandpits were free of any contamination. The prevalence of helminth eggs in positive samples was as follows: Toxocara spp. 3.2%, Uncinaria stenocephala 7.0%, Ancylostoma caninum 4.9% and Trichuris vulpis 4.9%.

[Trends of faunistic-ecological researches in the Department of Parasitology in Wroclaw University]. / Faunistyczno-ekologiczny nurt uniwersyteckich badan w Zakladzie Parazytologii Uniwersytetu Wroclawskiego.

Paper deals with the results of systematic-ecological investigations of host-parasite relationships in the context of 45 year history of the Parasitological Department at the University of Wroclaw. Achievements are concentrated on the presentations of new taxonomic units and rearrangement of classification of parasitic protozoans and tapeworms (J. Janiszewska), nematodes (A. Okulewicz), lice (J. Zlotorzycka, E. Lonc, M. Modrzejewska). Faunistic and biometrical data of parasitic commities of fishes, birds and mammals, mainly rodents as well as the vector role of ticks and mosquitoes at Wroclaw area are also discussed. Localities of those parasites and their hosts, collected mainly from the Lower Silesia region are rearranged according to new system of physicogeographic differentiation of Poland and its regional position at biogeographical map of world.

A new whipworm from arvicolid rodents, Trichuris arvicolae Feliu et al., 2000, in the helminth fauna of Poland.

During the parasitological examination of wild rodents from the vicinity of Wroclaw a single whipworm female was isolated from a field vole Microtus agrestis. The nematode was determined as Trichuris arvicolae. This is the first report of this parasite in Poland.