Comparing the prevalence of statistical reporting inconsistencies in COVID-19 preprints and matched controls: a registered report.

The COVID-19 outbreak has led to an exponential increase of publications and preprints about the virus, its causes, consequences, and possible cures. COVID-19 research has been conducted under high time pressure and has been subject to financial and societal interests. Doing research under such pressure may influence the scrutiny with which researchers perform and write up their studies. Either researchers become more diligent, because of the high-stakes nature of the research, or the time pressure may lead to cutting corners and lower quality output. In this study, we conducted a natural experiment to compare the prevalence of incorrectly reported statistics in a stratified random sample of COVID-19 preprints and a matched sample of non-COVID-19 preprints. Our results show that the overall prevalence of incorrectly reported statistics is 9-10%, but frequentist as well as Bayesian hypothesis tests show no difference in the number of statistical inconsistencies between COVID-19 and non-COVID-19 preprints. In conclusion, the literature suggests that COVID-19 research may on average have more methodological problems than non-COVID-19 research, but our results show that there is no difference in the statistical reporting quality.

Meta-analyzing the multiverse: A peek under the hood of selective reporting.

Researcher degrees of freedom refer to arbitrary decisions in the execution and reporting of hypothesis-testing research that allow for many possible outcomes from a single study. Selective reporting of results (p-hacking) from this "multiverse" of outcomes can inflate effect size estimates and false positive rates. We studied the effects of researcher degrees of freedom and selective reporting using empirical data from extensive multistudy projects in psychology (Registered Replication Reports) featuring 211 samples and 14 dependent variables. We used a counterfactual design to examine what biases could have emerged if the studies (and ensuing meta-analyses) had not been preregistered and could have been subjected to selective reporting based on the significance of the outcomes in the primary studies. Our results show the substantial variability in effect sizes that researcher degrees of freedom can create in relatively standard psychological studies, and how selective reporting of outcomes can alter conclusions and introduce bias in meta-analysis. Despite the typically thousands of outcomes appearing in the multiverses of the 294 included studies, only in about 30% of studies did significant effect sizes in the hypothesized direction emerge. We also observed that the effect of a particular researcher degree of freedom was inconsistent across replication studies using the same protocol, meaning multiverse analyses often fail to replicate across samples. We recommend hypothesis-testing researchers to preregister their preferred analysis and openly report multiverse analysis. We propose a descriptive index (underlying multiverse variability) that quantifies the robustness of results across alternative ways to analyze the data. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Heterogeneity in direct replications in psychology and its association with effect size.

We examined the evidence for heterogeneity (of effect sizes) when only minor changes to sample population and settings were made between studies and explored the association between heterogeneity and average effect size in a sample of 68 meta-analyses from 13 preregistered multilab direct replication projects in social and cognitive psychology. Among the many examined effects, examples include the Stroop effect, the "verbal overshadowing" effect, and various priming effects such as "anchoring" effects. We found limited heterogeneity; 48/68 (71%) meta-analyses had nonsignificant heterogeneity, and most (49/68; 72%) were most likely to have zero to small heterogeneity. Power to detect small heterogeneity (as defined by Higgins, Thompson, Deeks, & Altman, 2003) was low for all projects (mean 43%), but good to excellent for medium and large heterogeneity. Our findings thus show little evidence of widespread heterogeneity in direct replication studies in social and cognitive psychology, suggesting that minor changes in sample population and settings are unlikely to affect research outcomes in these fields of psychology. We also found strong correlations between observed average effect sizes (standardized mean differences and log odds ratios) and heterogeneity in our sample. Our results suggest that heterogeneity and moderation of effects is unlikely for a 0 average true effect size, but increasingly likely for larger average true effect size. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Reproducibility of individual effect sizes in meta-analyses in psychology.

To determine the reproducibility of psychological meta-analyses, we investigated whether we could reproduce 500 primary study effect sizes drawn from 33 published meta-analyses based on the information given in the meta-analyses, and whether recomputations of primary study effect sizes altered the overall results of the meta-analysis. Results showed that almost half (k = 224) of all sampled primary effect sizes could not be reproduced based on the reported information in the meta-analysis, mostly because of incomplete or missing information on how effect sizes from primary studies were selected and computed. Overall, this led to small discrepancies in the computation of mean effect sizes, confidence intervals and heterogeneity estimates in 13 out of 33 meta-analyses. We provide recommendations to improve transparency in the reporting of the entire meta-analytic process, including the use of preregistration, data and workflow sharing, and explicit coding practices.

The Prevalence of Marginally Significant Results in Psychology Over Time.

We examined the percentage of p values (.05 < p ≤ .10) reported as marginally significant in 44,200 articles, across nine psychology disciplines, published in 70 journals belonging to the American Psychological Association between 1985 and 2016. Using regular expressions, we extracted 42,504 p values between .05 and .10. Almost 40% of p values in this range were reported as marginally significant, although there were considerable differences between disciplines. The practice is most common in organizational psychology (45.4%) and least common in clinical psychology (30.1%). Contrary to what was reported by previous researchers, our results showed no evidence of an increasing trend in any discipline; in all disciplines, the percentage of p values reported as marginally significant was decreasing or constant over time. We recommend against reporting these results as marginally significant because of the low evidential value of p values between .05 and .10.