A systematic review of socio-economic differences in food habits in Europe: consumption of fruit and vegetables.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the differences in the consumption of fruit and vegetables between groups with different socio-economic status (SES) in the adult population of European countries. DESIGN: A systematic review of published and unpublished surveys of food habits conducted between 1985 and 1999 in 15 European countries. Educational level and occupational status were used as indicators of SES. A pooled estimate of the mean difference between the highest and the lowest level of education and occupation was calculated separately for men and women, using DerSimonian and Laird's random effects model. SETTING: The inclusion criteria of studies were: use of a validated method for assessing intake at the individual level; selection of a nationwide sample or a representative sample of a region; and providing the mean and standard deviation of overall fruit and vegetable consumption for each level of education or occupation, and separately for men and women. SUBJECTS: Participants in the individual surveys had to be adults (18-85 y). RESULTS: Eleven studies from seven countries met the criteria for being included in the meta-analysis. A higher SES was associated with a greater consumption of both fruit and vegetables. The pooled estimate of the difference in the intake of fruit was 24.3 g/person/day (95% confidence interval (CI) 14.0-34.7) between men in the highest level of education and those in the lowest level of education. Similarly, this difference was 33.6 g/person/day for women (95% CI 22.5-44.8). The differences regarding vegetables were 17.0 g/person/day (95% CI 8.6-25.5) for men and 13.4 g/person/day (95% CI 7.1-19.7) for women. The results were in the same direction when occupation instead of education was used as an indicator of SES. CONCLUSIONS: Although we cannot exclude over-reporting of intake by those with highest SES, it is unlikely that this potential bias could fully explain the differences we have found. Our results suggest that an unhealthier nutrition pattern may exist among adults belonging to lower socio-economic levels in Europe. SPONSORSHIP: The present study was supported by the European Union's FAIR programme (FAIR-97-3096).

Assessing eating patterns-an emerging research topic in nutritional sciences: introduction to the symposium.

In order to stimulate food habit research in nutritional sciences, in 1994 the International Union of Nutritional Sciences (IUNS) established Committee II/2 on Nutrition and Food Habits, which has the charge "to review the impact of changing food choice and habits on nutritional status". Within this broad task, priority has been given to methodological aspects of studies on the spatio-temporal structure of food and drink intake. Some principles of the study of eating patterns and the status of this research topic nutrition are described as an introduction to selected papers of a workshop on "Methodology to Identify and to Assess Eating Patterns" organized by the IUNS committee and held during the 16th International Congress of Nutrition in Montreal (Canada) on 28 July 1997.

Strategies for analyzing nutritional data for epidemiological purposes--conceptual framework.

The relation between nutritional factors and health investigated in epidemiological studies are often inconsistent. One of the reasons for such findings can be the improper addressing of the multitude of nutritional dimensions in the specific study situation such as physiological individuality of human beings, different living conditions, or numerous interdependencies between nutritional variables. Epidemiological research in nutrition and health should recognize such facts and work with appropriate study models and adequate data analyses. Instead of investigating heterogeneous populations it is advisable to concentrate on specific "types" of people. Under consideration of the study goals such "types" can be compiled according to physiological properties, e.g., cholesterol sensitivity, or biological-constitutional factors such as body build, life-style entities, or other factors. The variety of nutrition factors far beyond the commonly applied nutrient values can be expressed in integrated indices of "food patterns". Such "food patterns" can be derived in many ways. They can be deduced from theories by using specific criteria, but also explored by modern multivariate statistical analyses. The ways leading to "food patterns" are discussed. The ideas presented and discussed in this paper lead to an improved model for research in the field of nutrition and health with integrated indices of "food patterns" as the critical point. It is assumed that using this approach will generate new insight in the relation of nutrition and health, a currently still diffuse research area.

Regional nutritional pattern and cancer mortality in the Federal Republic of Germany.

Regional age-adjusted mortality rates of the Federal Republic of Germany from 1976 to 1980 were correlated with regional nutritional data from a national survey on income and consumption. This survey was conducted in 1973 and covered a sample of 50,000 households. The mortality rates due to carcinomas of the stomach, colon, rectum, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, breast, and prostate and the consumption data of 15 nutrients and other compounds are shown for the 11 Federal States. For alcohol, vitamin C and calcium variations range about 20%, whereas deviations in the consumption of protein, fat, and most carbohydrates appear of minor importance. Some of the 45 correlation coefficients significant at the 5% level (out of 210) may have etiologic importance. The associations that coincide in both sexes are alcohol and disaccharide consumption with stomach cancer and protein intake with pancreatic cancer. Because previous habits and consumption may have a stronger etiologic influence than do present ones in the induction of chronic diseases, the utilization of existing information from the 1930s (e.g., Atlas of Ethnic Studies) and the assessment of habits in previous decades by means of case-control studies are emphasized.

The B-vitamin group and the activity of hepatic microsomal mixed-function oxidases of the growing Wistar rat.

1. Male Wistar rats were given isoenergetic, semi-synthetic diets deficient in thiamin, riboflavin, pyridoxine or all the B-vitamins. 2. In rats given these deficient diets the 'sleeping time' induced with pentobarbital (PB) and the 'paralysis time' with zoxazolamine (Zz) were prolonged. 3. The tolerance effect against both drugs was nearly independent of the levels of B-vitamins in the diets. 4. In preparations from vitamin-B deficient animals the activities of the following hepatic microsomal enzymes were reduced: the aliphatic hydroxylase of PB, the aromatic hydroxylases of aniline (EC 1.14.14.1) and of Zz, the N-demethylase of aminopyrine, the UDP glucuronyltransferase (EC 2.4.1.17) of p-nitrophenol. The reactions most influenced were those of 'type-1' substrates, particularly those involving the hydroxylases. 5. The effects observed were caused mainly by deficiency of riboflavin and to a lesser extent of thiamin or pyridoxine.

Interactions between malnutrition and primaquine studied on Wistar rats. II. Complex vitamin B deficiency and thiamine deficiency.

The action of primaquine was investigated on male Wistar rats depleted on the vitamin B complex (approximately 50% of their requirement for optimal growth), on thiamine (approximately 50% of their requirement for optimal growth), and pair-fed control animals. There was only a marginal increase in adverse primaquine reactions in the malnourished, especially in the thiamine deficient rats.