Objective breast volume, shape and surface area assessment: a systematic review of breast measurement methods.

BACKGROUND: There are many methods of measuring the breast and their clinical applications are well described in the literature. However, there has been no attempt to compare these various methods to allow the user to have a broad overview of the subject. The authors have attempted to summarise all the available methods to measure the breast in this article to provide a useful reference for all. METHODS: A comprehensive literature search of PubMed was performed, and the resulting articles were screened and reviewed. The data regarding the methods' mechanism, reliability, time and cost were evaluated and compared. RESULTS: A total of 74 articles dating from 1970 to 2013 were included in this study. All of the methods can be classified into those that measure (1) volume, (2) shape and (3) surface area. Each category consists of several methods that work through different mechanisms and they vary in their reliability and feasibility. Based on their mechanism, the volume measurement methods were further grouped into the natural shape methods, the stereological method, the geometrical methods and the mathematical modelling method. CONCLUSIONS: More objective breast evaluation can be achieved if all three dimensions (volume, shape and surface area) are considered. In the volume measurements, 3D modelling and the MRI are the most reliable tools. Linear measurement (geometry) and mathematical modelling are less accurate but are more economical. In the shape measurements, besides the traditional linear measurement, 3D methods that can deliver colour-coded maps and Swanson's 2D photographic measurement system are capable of depicting and tracking breast shape changes after surgery. Although the surface area metric has not been used extensively, it has potential in clinical and research applications. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE IV: This journal requires that authors assign a level of evidence to each article. For a full description of these Evidence-Based Medicine ratings, please refer to the Table of Contents or the online Instructions to Authors www.springer.com/00266.

Use of the anterolateral thigh and vertical rectus abdominis musculocutaneous flaps as utility flaps in reconstructing large groin defects.

BACKGROUND: Groin dissections result in large wounds with exposed femoral vessels requiring soft tissue coverage, and the reconstructive options are diverse. In this study we reviewed our experience with the use of the pedicled anterolateral thigh and vertical rectus abdominis musculocutaneous flaps in the reconstruction of large groin wounds. METHODS: Groin reconstructions performed over a period of 10 years were evaluated, with a mean follow up of two years. We included all cases with large or complex (involving perineum) defects, which were reconstructed with the pedicled anterolateral thigh musculocutaneous or the vertical rectus abdominis musculocutaneous (VRAM) flaps. Smaller wounds which were covered with skin grafts, locally based flaps and pedicled muscle flaps were excluded. RESULTS: Twenty-three reconstructions were performed for large or complex groin defects, utilising the anterolateral thigh (n=10) and the vertical rectus abdominis (n=13) pedicled musculocutaneous flaps. Femoral vein reconstruction with a prosthetic graft was required in one patient, and a combination flap (VRAM and gracilis muscle flap) was performed in another. Satisfactory coverage was achieved in all cases without major complications. No free flaps were used in our series. CONCLUSIONS: The anterolateral thigh and vertical rectus abdominis pedicled musculocutaneous flaps yielded consistent results with little morbidity in the reconstruction of large and complex groin defects. A combination of flaps can be used in cases requiring extensive cover.

Stepwise training for reconstructive microsurgery: the journey to becoming a confident microsurgeon in singapore.

Microsurgery training in Singapore began in 1980 with the opening of the Experimental Surgical Unit. Since then, the unit has continued to grow and have held microsurgical training courses biannually. The road to becoming a full-fledged reconstructive surgeon requires the mastering of both microvascular as well as flap raising techniques and requires time, patience and good training facilities. In Singapore, over the past 2 decades, we have had the opportunity to develop good training facilities and to refine our surgical education programmes in reconstructive microsurgery. In this article, we share our experience with training in reconstructive microsurgery.

Radical surgical excision and use of lateral thoracic flap for intractable axillary hidradenitis suppurativa.

Current treatments for hidradenitis suppurativa (HS) include prolonged courses of antibiotics, retinoids, immunosuppressants, and biologics. Severe cases that are resistant to prolonged medical treatment pose a therapeutic challenge. We propose radical excision and lateral thoracic flap reconstruction as a treatment option for such cases. In our experience with two patients, good aesthetic and functional outcomes were achieved, with a high level of patient satisfaction. The availability of suitable flap coverage allows for wide resection of all of the hair-bearing skin, leading to a low incidence of residual disease and subsequent recurrence. Following excision of the affected tissue, the ideal reconstructive method in the axilla provides suitable coverage without unacceptable donor site morbidity and also avoids axillary contractures. A long lateral thoracic flap with delay has excellent coverage with minimal donor tissue sacrifice. With a suitable flap coverage option, the management paradigm of intractable HS should shift from prolonged medical treatment to allow decisive radical excision, which will improve the quality of life for patients.

Preferred use of the ipsilateral pedicled TRAM flap for immediate breast reconstruction: an illustrated approach.

BACKGROUND: Recent experience with the ipsilateral TRAM flap has shown that it has the advantage of a longer functional pedicle length, which allows tension-free inset of well-vascularized tissue into the breast pocket. This leads to better positioning and shaping of the reconstructed breast with minimal disruption of the inframammary fold. The purpose of this article was to provide an illustrated approach to the ipsilateral TRAM flap and to clarify the technique when applied in the context of immediate breast reconstruction following cancer extirpation. METHODS: A prospective evaluation of 89 patients who underwent immediate breast reconstruction following skin-sparing mastectomy for breast cancer was performed. All patients underwent ipsilateral TRAM reconstruction. The innate insetting advantage of the ipsilateral TRAM flap is illustrated in the article. The key steps of the technique were as follows: (1) The ipsilateral corner of the flap was used as the axillary tail, leaving the more bulky part to form the main body of the breast; (2) To avoid undesirable twists, a right TRAM was rotated clockwise so that its apex points superiorly; (3) This flap was subsequently tunneled into the breast pocket while preserving the inframammary fold. The opposite maneuvers were done for the left side; (4) If the flap was congested, venous augmentation was performed where the tributary of the axillary vein or the thoracodorsal vein was anastomosed with the inferior epigastric vein from the flap with an interposed vein graft (17% of cases). RESULTS: All flaps survived and flap-related complications included partial necrosis of tissue across the midline (2.2%), palpable fat necrosis (22%), and hematoma requiring drainage (2.2%). All flaps were raised concurrent with the resection, and the combined operative time ranged from 3.5 to 6 h, with a mean hospital stay of 7 days. CONCLUSION: The ipsilateral TRAM flap was a reliable flap with low complication rates and short surgery time. It was our preferred choice for pedicled breast reconstruction in all cases, except for the ptotic breast or if abdominal scarring excludes its use.

Serratus anterior venous tributary as a second outflow vein in latissimus dorsi free flaps.

The latissimus dorsi (LD) flap is a large and reliable myocutaneous flap with a consistently long vascular pedicle. However, the limitation of the thoracodorsal pedicle is that it has only one draining vein for anastomosis. We describe a simple technique of recruiting the tributary vein to the serratus anterior and using it as a second draining vein to alleviate congestion in lower limb reconstruction. The serratus anterior venous tributary segment is cut back to an avalvular segment which averages 5 mm in length. Provision of an additional venous outflow to the flap enabled a second venous anastomosis to the short saphenous vein (N = 1), the long saphenous vein (N = 2), a deep vein (N= 1), and to a deep vein via a vein graft (N = 1), respectively. Five patients with degloving injury of the lower extremity of sizes 150 cm(2) (10 × 15 cm) to 260 cm(2) (10 × 26 cm) underwent successful reconstruction using the LD muscle flap with the serratus anterior tributary vein as a second outflow vein. This serratus anterior venous tributary serves as a useful second outflow channel for alleviating venous congestion during lower limb reconstructive surgery and should be routinely preserved as a lifeboat.

An algorithm for recipient vessel selection in microsurgical head and neck reconstruction.

This article details an algorithm we used for selection of recipient vessels in free tissue transfer to the head and neck. Eighty-eight consecutive free flaps to the head and neck were performed in 85 patients. The superior thyroid was the commonest recipient artery used (61%). The facial artery, used in 14% of our cases, is the choice vessel in instances where neck dissection is not performed. In these cases, we have to access the neck separately for recipient vessels and it can be exposed easily via a short (3-cm) incision. The superficial temporal artery (11%) is our choice vessel for patients with previous neck dissection or radiotherapy as it is well outside the previous operative or irradiated field. Other vessels such as the transverse cervical and end-to-side anastomosis to the carotid artery were also used when appropriate. Recipient vein selection depends primarily on the selected artery. Corresponding veins and large branches of the internal jugular vein (IJV) in the vicinity of the selected artery are preferred. When these are exhausted, the external jugular vein and end-to-side anastomosis to the IJV are considered. We found this algorithm to be reliable in identifying the appropriate vessels in all cases.

Modifications of the radial forearm flap phalloplasty for female-to-male gender reassignment.

The radial forearm flap remains the preferred technique for phalloplasty. From 1999 to 2009, 19 patients with primary female transsexualism underwent gender reassignment surgery at our center. The radial forearm flap phalloplasty is modified as a two-stage procedure, with prelamination of the neourethra on the donor forearm before microsurgical transfer 3 months later. At 5-year follow-up, patients were asked to complete a survey on the functional, aesthetic, and psychological results postsurgery. The radial forearm flap reliably provided sufficient bulk with stiffness for the neophallus with acceptable aesthetic appearance. We further describe technical modifications to reduce the rate of urethral strictures and fistulas. None of the patients regretted undergoing gender transformation. Patients are satisfied with the surgical result and generally prepared to accept its potential costs, in view of the significant psychological and legal benefits.

The fibula osteoseptocutaneous flap incorporating the hemisoleus muscle for complex head and neck defects: anatomical study and clinical applications.

BACKGROUND: In patients with extensive bone and soft-tissue defects, the inclusion of the hemisoleus muscle with the fibula osteoseptocutaneous flap would provide the needed soft-tissue volume to the flap. This study evaluates the reliability and technical considerations for the inclusion of the hemisoleus with the fibula and skin paddle as a chimeric, peroneal artery-based flap. METHODS: The location and size of major arterial branches of the peroneal artery supplying the lateral hemisoleus muscle were investigated in 10 cadaveric injected lower limb specimens. The utility of this design was demonstrated in five clinical cases. RESULTS: The lateral hemisoleus was noted to be consistently supplied by large muscle branches from the peroneal artery, soleus vessels 1 (proximal) and 2 (distal). The mean diameter and distance from the origin of the peroneal artery for soleus vessels 1 and 2 were 1.8 mm and 2.1 cm, and 1.6 mm and 6.3 cm, respectively. The fibula osteoseptocutaneous flap incorporating the hemisoleus muscle was performed in five clinical cases. All were successful. Either soleus vessel 1 or soleus vessel 2 can be used as the pedicle to the muscle, depending on the specific reconstructive requirements for the reach and placement of the hemisoleus. CONCLUSIONS: The fibula osteoseptocutaneous flap incorporating the hemisoleus muscle can reliably be raised by preserving constant muscle branches that arise from the peroneal artery to supply the lateral hemisoleus. This flap provides the additional bulk in selected cases, with little additional donor-site morbidity.