A new technique for motion encoding gradient-less MR elastography of the psoas major muscle: A gradient-echo type multi-echo sequence.

The present study aimed to develop vibration techniques for magnetic resonance (MR) elastography (MRE) of the psoas major muscle (PM). Seven healthy volunteers were included. MRE was performed with motion-encoding gradient (MEG)-less multi-echo MRE sequence, which allows clinicians to perform MRE using conventional MR imaging. In order to transmit mechanical vibration of the pneumatic type to the PM, a long narrow vibration pad was designed using a 3D printer, and the optimum vibration techniques were verified. The vibration pad was placed under the lower back, with the volunteers in the supine position. The results indicated that the PM vibrated well through the transmitted vibration from the lumbar spine, which suggests that the placement of a narrow vibration pad under the supine body, along the lumbar spine, allows the vibration of the PM. The shear modulus of the PM (n = 7) was 1.23 ±â€¯0.09 kPa (mean ±â€¯SEM) on the right side and 1.22 ±â€¯0.15 kPa on the left side, with no significant difference (t-test, P > 0.05). Increased stiffness of the muscle due to continuous local contraction may be an important cause of non-specific low back pain (LBP). The present vibration techniques for MRE of the PM provide a quantitative diagnostic tool for changes in muscle stiffness associated with non-specific LBP.

The Development of Vibration System for Applying Magnetic Resonance Elastography (MRE) to the Supraspinatus Muscle.

Palpation is a standard clinical tool to diagnose abnormal stiffness changes in soft tissues. However, it is difficult to palpate the supraspinatus muscle because it locates under the trapezius muscle. The magnetic resonance elastography (MRE) uses harmonic mechanical excitation to quantitatively measure the stiffness (shear modulus) of both the superficial and deep tissues. The purpose of this study was to build a vibration system for applying the MRE to the supraspinatus muscle. In this study, a power amplifier and a pneumatic pressure generator were used to supply vibrations to a vibration pad. Six healthy volunteers underwent MRE. We investigated the effects of position (the head of the humerus and the trapezius muscle) of the vibration pad on the patterns of wave propagation (wave image). When the vibration pad was placed in the trapezius muscle, the wave images represented clear wave propagation. On the other hand, when the vibration pad was placed in the head of the humerus, the wave images represented unclear wave propagation. This result might be caused by wave interferences resulting from the vibrations from bones and an intramuscular tendon of the supraspinatus muscle. The mean shear modulus also was 8.12 ± 1.83 (mean ± SD) kPa, when the vibration pad was placed in the trapezius muscle. Our results demonstrated that the vibration pad should be placed in the trapezius muscle in the MRE of the supraspinatus muscle.

A new technique for MR elastography of the supraspinatus muscle: A gradient-echo type multi-echo sequence.

Magnetic resonance elastography (MRE) can measure tissue stiffness quantitatively and noninvasively. Supraspinatus muscle injury is a significant problem among throwing athletes. The purpose of this study was to develop an MRE technique for application to the supraspinatus muscle by using a conventional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). MRE acquisitions were performed with a gradient-echo type multi-echo MR sequence at 100Hz pneumatic vibration. A custom-designed vibration pad was used as a pneumatic transducer in order to adapt to individual shoulder shapes. In a gradient-echo type multi-echo MR sequence, without motion encoding gradient (MEG) that synchronizes with vibrations, bipolar readout gradient lobes achieved a similar function to MEG (MEG-like effect). In other words, a dedicated MRE sequence (built-in MEG) is not always necessary for MRE. In this study, 7 healthy volunteers underwent MRE. We investigated the effects of direction of the MEG-like effect and selected imaging planes on the patterns of wave propagation (wave image). The results indicated that wave images showed clear wave propagation on a condition that the direction of the MEG-like effect was nearly perpendicular to the long axis of the supraspinatus muscle, and that the imaging plane was superior to the proximal supraspinatus muscle. This limited condition might be ascribed to specific features of fibers in the supraspinatus muscle and wave reflection from the boundaries of the supraspinous fossa. The mean stiffness of the supraspinatus muscle was 10.6±3.17kPa. Our results demonstrated that using MRE, our method can be applied to the supraspinatus muscle by using conventional MRI.

Epidermal cell density is autoregulated via a secretory peptide, EPIDERMAL PATTERNING FACTOR 2 in Arabidopsis leaves.

Regulation of the number of cells is critical for development of multicellular organisms. During plant epidermal development, a protodermal cell first makes a fate decision of whether or not to be the meristemoid mother cell (MMC), which undergoes asymmetric cell division forming a meristemoid and its sister cell. The MMC-derived lineage produces all stomatal guard cells and a large proportion of non-guard cells. We demonstrate that a small secretory peptide, EPIDERMAL PATTERING FACTOR 2 (EPF2), is produced by the MMC and its early descendants, and negatively regulates the density of guard and non-guard epidermal cells. Our results suggest that EPF2 inhibits cells from adopting the MMC fate in a non-cell-autonomous manner, thus limiting the number of MMCs. This feedback loop is critical for regulation of epidermal cell density. The amino acid sequence of EPF2 resembles that of EPF1, which is known to control stomatal positioning. Over-expression of EPF1 also inhibits stomatal development, but EPF1 can act only on a later developmental process than EPF2. Overexpression and promoter swapping experiments suggested that the protein functions of EPF1 and EPF2, rather than the expression patterns of the genes, are responsible for the specific functions. Although targets of EPF1 and EPF2 are different, both EPF1 and EPF2 require common putative receptor components TOO MANY MOUTHS (TMM), ERECTA (ER), ERECTA LIKE 1 (ERL1) and ERL2 in order to function.