Economics of East Coast fever: a literature review.

East Coast fever (ECF) is a cattle disease caused by a protozoan parasite called Theileria parva (T. parva). Theileria parva is transmitted among cattle by ticks. It is endemic in parts of central, eastern, and southern Africa and imposes an economic burden through illness and death of approximately a half of a billion U.S. dollars annually. This paper reviews existing science on the economics of ECF. We utilize a conceptual model that defines primary categories of economic costs due to ECF and use it to organize a synthesis of the literature on aggregate and micro level direct costs of the disease and the costs and benefits related to various ECF management strategies. We then identify knowledge gaps to motivate for future research.

Mapping, intensities and future prediction of land use/land cover dynamics using google earth engine and CA- artificial neural network model.

Mapping of land use/ land cover (LULC) dynamics has gained significant attention in the past decades. This is due to the role played by LULC change in assessing climate, various ecosystem functions, natural resource activities and livelihoods in general. In Gedaref landscape of Eastern Sudan, there is limited or no knowledge of LULC structure and size, degree of change, transition, intensity and future outlook. Therefore, the aims of the current study were to (1) evaluate LULC changes in the Gedaref state, Sudan for the past thirty years (1988-2018) using Landsat imageries and the random forest classifier, (2) determine the underlying dynamics that caused the changes in the landscape structure using intensity analysis, and (3) predict future LULC outlook for the years 2028 and 2048 using cellular automata-artificial neural network (CA-ANN). The results exhibited drastic LULC dynamics driven mainly by cropland and settlement expansions, which increased by 13.92% and 319.61%, respectively, between 1988 and 2018. In contrast, forest and grassland declined by 56.47% and 56.23%, respectively. Moreover, the study shows that the gains in cropland coverage in Gedaref state over the studied period were at the expense of grassland and forest acreage, whereas the gains in settlements partially targeted cropland. Future LULC predictions showed a slight increase in cropland area from 89.59% to 90.43% and a considerable decrease in forest area (0.47% to 0.41%) between 2018 and 2048. Our findings provide reliable information on LULC patterns in Gedaref region that could be used for designing land use and environmental conservation frameworks for monitoring crop produce and grassland condition. In addition, the result could help in managing other natural resources and mitigating landscape fragmentation and degradation.

Assessment of community perceptions and risk to common zoonotic diseases among communities living at the human-livestock-wildlife interface in Nakuru West, Kenya: A participatory epidemiology approach.

BACKGROUND: Zoonoses account for most of the emerging and re-emerging infections in Kenya and in other low to medium-income countries across the world. The human-livestock-wildlife interface provides a nexus where transmission and spread of these zoonotic diseases could occur among communities farming in these areas. We sought to identify perceptions of the community living near the Lake Nakuru National Park in Kenya. METHODS: We used participatory epidemiology techniques (PE) involving Focus Group Discussion (FGD) among community members and Key Informant Interviews (KII) with the health, veterinary, and administration officers in July 2020. We used listing, pairwise matching, and proportional piling techniques during the FGDs in the randomly selected villages in the study area from a list of villages provided by the area government officers. Kruskal-Wallis test was used to compare the median scores between the zoonotic diseases, source of information, and response to disease occurrence. Medians with a z-score greater than 1.96 at 95% Confidence Level were considered to be significant. Content analysis was used to rank qualitative variables. RESULTS: We conducted seven FGDs and four KIIs. A total of 89 participants took part in the FGDs with their ages ranging from 26 to 85 years. Common zoonotic diseases identified by participants included anthrax, rabies, and brucellosis. Anthrax was considered to have the greatest impact by the participants (median = 4, z>1.96), while 4/7 (57%) of the FGDs identified consumption of uninspected meat as a way that people can get infected with zoonotic diseases. Community Health Volunteers (Median = 28, z = 2.13) and the government veterinary officer (median = 7, z = 1.8) were the preferred sources of information during disease outbreaks. CONCLUSION: The participants knew the zoonotic diseases common in the area and how the diseases can be acquired. We recommend increased involvement of the community in epidemio-surveillance of zoonotic diseases at the human-wildlife-livestock interface.

Prevalence of gross lesions and handling practices in pigs and their association with pork quality, Kiambu, Kenya.

Pre-slaughter handling of pigs has been documented to affect the quality of meat though no studies have investigated this relationship in the Kenyan context. This study aimed to determine the prevalence of gross lesions and practices related to sub-optimal welfare in pigs presented for slaughter while analyzing the relationship between occurrence of these lesions and meat quality. A cross-sectional study was conducted at a medium scale, non-integrated pig abattoir supplying to the Nairobi market, with a capacity to slaughter approximately 40 pigs a day. Data on welfare-associated lesions and handling practices were obtained from 529 pig carcasses and traders respectively. 387 pork samples were collected, and their quality evaluated by measuring their pH, meat color and drip loss. These three parameters were used to classify pork into four recognized categories namely: Red, Firm, Non-exudative (RFN), Pale Soft Exudative (PSE), Dark Firm Dry (DFD) and Red Soft Exudative (RSE). Almost all pigs were inefficiently stunned as evidenced by the presence of consciousness post-stunning. The majority of pigs (82.97%) having one or more welfare-associated gross lesions. Other animal welfare malpractices observed were high loading density and inadequate rest periods between transport and slaughter. A quarter of the pork samples were of sub-optimal quality including: RSE (11.36%), PSE (2.58%) and DFD (2.58%). Multinomial logistic regression revealed that pork originating from pigs transported at a high loading density had increased odds of being classified as DFD (OR 13.41, 95% CI 2.59-69.46). The findings indicate the need to educate stakeholders in the pork value chains on improved pig handling before and during slaughter to enhance pig welfare pre-slaughter and pork quality post-slaughter. Animal welfare legislation enforcement and implementation was observed to be insufficient. There is a need to educate key stakeholders on its importance of being put into practice both from economic and welfare perspectives.

Assessment of Milk Quality and Food Safety Challenges in the Complex Nairobi Dairy Value Chain.

Food networks present varying food safety concerns because of the complexity of interactions, production, and handling practices. We investigated total bacteria counts (TBCs) and total coliform counts (TCCs) in various nodes of a Nairobi dairy value chain and identified practices that influence food safety. A value chain analysis framework facilitated qualitative data collection through 23 key informant interviews and 20 focus group discussions. Content thematic analysis identified food safety challenges. Cow milk products (N = 290) were collected from farms (N = 63), collection centers (N = 5), shops/kiosks (N = 37), milk bars (N = 17), roadside vendors (N = 14), restaurants (N = 3), milk vending machines (N = 2), mobile traders (N = 2) and a supermarket (N = 1). Mean values of colony-forming units for TBC and TCC were referenced to East African Standards (EAS). Logistic regression analysis assessed differences in milk acceptability based on EAS. The raw milk from farms and collection centers was relatively within acceptable EAS limits in terms of TBC (3.5 × 105 and 1.4 × 106 respectively) but TCC in the milk from farms was 3 times higher than EAS limits (1.5 × 105). Compared to farms, the odds ratio of milk acceptability based on TBC was lower on milk bars (0.02), restaurants (0.02), roadside vendors (0.03), shops/kiosks (0.07), and supermarkets (0.17). For TCC, the odds that milk samples from collection centers, milk bars, restaurants, roadside vendors, and shops/kiosks were acceptable was less than the odds of samples collected from farms (0.18, 0.03, 0.06, 0.02, and 0.12, respectively). Comparison of raw milk across the nodes showed that the odds of milk samples from restaurants, roadside vendors, and shops/kiosks being acceptable were less than the odds of samples collected the farm for TBC (0.03, 0.04, and 0.04, respectively). For TCC, the odds of raw milk from collection centers, restaurants, roadside vendors, milk bars, and shops/kiosks being acceptable were lower than the odds of acceptability for the farm samples (0.18, 0.12, 0.02, 0.04, and 0.05, respectively). Practices with possible influence on milk bacterial quality included muddy cowsheds, unconventional animal feed sources, re-use of spoilt raw milk, milk adulteration, acceptance of low-quality milk for processing, and lack of cold chain. Therefore, milk contamination occurs at various points, and the designing of interventions should focus on every node.

Developing and validating a rapid assessment tool for small ruminant reproduction and production in pastoralist flocks in Kajiado, Kenya.

The collection of production performance data in small ruminants pastoralists flocks is essential to evaluate their efficiency and assess how different challenges, such as diseases, droughts or changes in land use, affect their sustainability. Although different methodologies exist, capturing these data is difficult, particularly in nomadic pastoral flocks. In this study, a method for rapid assessment of flock production performance based on farmer recall was designed, implemented and tested. Through literature review and consultation with pastoralists and key informants, a questionnaire was developed to capture small ruminant flock data disaggregated by age (≤2 years old and >2 years old), species and sex. Data on flock dynamics and on reproduction parameters were collected for a period of 12 months. A survey of 130 pastoralists with medium to large flocks was then conducted in Kajiado County (Kenya). Values were calculated for 12 reproduction performance indicators and 7 additional production performance indicators. In addition, a flock efficiency indicator (FEI) is proposed that classifies mixed flocks (i.e., with sheep and goats) into low, medium or high efficiency. Results showed that in flocks with low efficiency, the median value for net fecundity rate was 0.43 lambs/ewe (range 0.08-1.00) and 0.41 kids/doe (range 0.07-0.73), and the median production rate was 6% (range [-47%] to 20%) for sheep and 11% (range [-38%] to 0.21%) for goats. In flocks with high efficiency the median net fecundity rate was 0.77 lambs/ewe (range 0.48-2.73) and 0.88 kids/doe (range 0.49-1.80), and the median production rate was 25% (range 11-47) for sheep and 28% (range 15-46) for goats. Sixty-two (47.7%) of the pastoralists surveyed reported usually buying animals into their flocks, and, consequently were considered as 'pastoralists and traders'. Their flocks had significantly lower FEI scores (median = 7.5, interquartile range [IQR] 6-9), compared with "pastoralists only" flocks (median = 8, IQR 6-10, Kruskal-Wallis rank sum test, p-value <0.001). Since this method is based on pastoralist recall, values obtained should be considered as approximations. Nonetheless, the proposed assessment tool can be used by individuals with low resources or recording capacity, and in large scale programmes to monitor pastoralist flock dynamics, set-up benchmarking programmes, estimate the impact of diseases and shocks, identify those flocks which are most vulnerable to these shocks and evaluate the effectiveness of policies and interventions on herd performance.

Risk factors for the incursion, spread and persistence of the foot and mouth disease virus in Eastern Rwanda.

BACKGROUND: Identification of risk factors is crucial in Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) control especially in endemic countries. In Rwanda, almost all outbreaks of Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus (FMDV) have started in Eastern Rwanda. Identifying the risk factors in this area will support government control efforts. This study was carried out to identify and map different risk factors for the incursion, spread and persistence of FMDV in Eastern Rwanda. Questionnaires were administered during farm visits to establish risk factors for FMD outbreaks. Descriptive statistical measures were determined and odds ratios were calculated to determine the effects of risk factors on the occurrence of FMD. Quantum Geographic Information System (QGIS) was used to produce thematic maps on the proportion of putative risk factors for FMD per village. RESULTS: Based on farmers' perceptions, 85.31% (with p < 0.01) experienced more outbreaks during the major dry season, a finding consistent with other reports in other parts of the world. Univariate analysis revealed that mixed farming (OR = 1.501, p = 0.163, CI = 95%), and natural breeding method (OR = 1.626; p = 0.21, CI = 95%) were associated with the occurrence of FMD indicating that the two risk factors could be responsible for FMD outbreaks in the farms. The occurrence of FMD in the farms was found to be significantly associated with lack of vaccination of calves younger than 12 months in herds (OR = 0.707; p = 0.046, CI = 95%). CONCLUSIONS: This is the first study to describe risk factors for persistence of FMDV in livestock systems in Rwanda. However, further studies are required to understand the role of transboundary animal movements and genotypic profiles of circulating FMDV in farming systems in Rwanda.

Risk Factors for Outbreaks of Lumpy Skin Disease and the Economic Impact in Cattle Farms of Nakuru County, Kenya.

Lumpy Skin Disease (LSD) is an emerging disease of cattle that causes substantial economic loss to affected regions. However, factors favouring transmission under field conditions and farm-level impacts are poorly quantified. This was a retrospective case-control study of cattle farms in Nakuru, Kenya to determine risk factors associated with lumpy skin disease and the farm-level economic impacts of an outbreak. Data were collected using questionnaires administered through personal interview. Collected data included herd sizes, age, and sex structures, breeds, sources of replacement stock, grazing systems, and costs (direct and indirect) incurred when LSD outbreaks occurred. Farm-level risk factors were examined through univariable and multivariable logistic regression and a final model built using backward stepwise regression and likelihood ratio tests. The factors associated with LSD outbreaks on univariable analysis included breed (exotic vs. indigenous, OR = 15.01, P = 0.007), source of replacement stock (outside the herd vs. within the herd, OR = 8.38, P < 0.001) and herd size (large [>10 cattle] vs. small [1-3 cattle], OR = 3.51, P = 0.029). In the multivariable logistic regression model, only breed (exotic vs. indigenous, OR = 14.87, 95% CI 1.94-113.97, P = 0.009) and source of replacement stock (outside the herd vs. within the herd OR = 8.7, 95% CI 2.80-27.0, P < 0.001) were associated with outbreaks. The economic impact was compared between farms keeping purely indigenous (n = 10) or exotic (n = 29) breeds of cattle which indicated mean farm-level losses of 12,431 KSH/123 USD and 76,297 KSH/755 USD, respectively. The mean farm-level losses from reduction in milk yield and mortality were estimated at 4,725 KSH/97 USD and 3,103 KSH/31USD for farms keeping indigenous breeds whilst for farms keeping exotic breeds the equivalent losses were 26,886 KSH/266 USD and 43,557 KSH/431 USD, respectively. The indirect losses from treatments and vaccinations were proportionately much higher on farms with indigenous breeds at 4,603 KSH/46 USD making up ~37% of the total costs compared to ~8% (5,855 KSH/58 USD per farm) of the total costs for farms with exotic breeds. These findings indicate that LSD caused significant economic losses at the farm level in Nakuru County. This justifies implementation of disease control measures including quarantine of cattle post-purchase and the need for effective vaccinations of susceptible cattle herds.

Investigation of the governance structure of the Nairobi dairy value chain and its influence on food safety.

The dairy value chain of Nairobi is comprised, in its majority, of small-scale independent enterprises that operate within a complex interlinked system. In this complexity, the coordination and power structures of the system may have major influences on the management of dairy food safety. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the governance structure and challenges faced by stakeholders throughout the Nairobi dairy value chain and assess their potential implications on food safety. Qualitative data were collected through focus group discussions and key informant interviews based on a dairy value chain mapping framework previously developed. Thematic analysis enabled identification of governance themes, key challenges and analysis of their implications on food safety. Themes were organized depending on their association with farmers (informal settlement or peri-urban), dairy cooperatives, dairy traders, processing companies, retailers or government officers. The identified governance themes included: i) weak linkage between government and farmers, ii) inadequate compliance with government regulations by traders and retailers, iii) emphasis on business licenses and permits for revenue rather than for food safety, iv) multiple licensing resulting in high business cost and lack of compliance, v) fragmented regulation, vi) unfair competition and vii) sanctions that do not always result in compliance. The key challenges identified included, among others: i) inadequate farmer support, ii) harassment of traders and retailers and iii) high business costs for traders, retailers, dairy cooperatives and large processors. The implication of governance and challenges of food safety were, among others: i) inadequate extension services, ii) insufficient cold chain, iii) delivery of adulterated and low milk quality to bulking centers, iv) inadequate food safety training and v) lack of policies for management of waste milk. The range of issues highlighted are based on stakeholders' perceptions and reflects the complexity of the relationships between them. Many of the governance themes demonstrate the linkages that are both beneficial or confrontational between the formal and informal sectors, and between industry and regulatory authorities, with possible direct food safety consequences. Findings obtained provide indications to decision-makers of potential governance areas that could help improve efficiency and food safety along the dairy value chain.

Assessment of structure and performance of cattle markets in western Kenya.

Cattle markets play a major role in economic empowerment among cattle-keeping communities in developing countries. The objective of this study was to assess the structure and performance of selected cattle markets in western Kenya. Data was collected using a semi-structured questionnaire administered to livestock traders who visited markets and by conducting focus group interviews. Data was collected on availability of market information, price setting behavior, marketing costs, practices of traders on livestock movements, sources of working capital, and characteristic of respondents. A total of 252 questionnaires and six focus group discussions were conducted for the study. Cattle market concentration indices were analyzed by calculation of Gini coefficient and plotting of Lorenz curves. Additionally, gross marketing margins were calculated to evaluate market performance. The results from this study showed a positive marketing margin in study markets for all cattle categories, the relatively high Gini coefficient of 0.65, and Lorenz curves revealing that in some markets 20% of traders control about 48% of the market share which is an indication of high market concentration. The high Gini coefficient and positive marketing margin obtained imply that study markets were highly concentrated but profitable which is an indication of inequality in the markets. The main barriers to entry in these livestock markets included lack of adequate market information, high operational capital requirements, and high costs of transporting animals. In conclusion, cattle marketing within western Kenya is profitable. However, the high concentration index in markets and presence of entry barriers including lack of flow of information on sources of livestock for trade, mechanism of price setting within markets' high capital outlay, may encourage poor trade practices which may compromise biosecurity standards within markets, and hence necessitating increased risk for spread of livestock diseases and even zoonoses to connected farms and systems.

Management and cost of snakebite injuries at a teaching and referral hospital in Western Kenya.

Background: Data on the cost of snakebite injuries may inform key pillars of universal health coverage including proper planning, allocation, and utility of resources. This study evaluated the injuries, management, and costs resulting from snakebites at Jaramogi Oginga Odinga Teaching and Referral Hospital (JOOTRH) in Kenya.  Methods: In total, medical records of 127 snakebite victims attending JOOTRH between January 2011 and December 2016 were purposely selected and data on the age, gender, type of residence (urban or rural), part of the body bitten, time of bite, injuries, pre-hospital first aid, time to hospital, length of stay, treatment, and costs were collected. Regression analysis was used to predict the total indirect cost of snakebite injuries and p≤ 0.05 was considered significant. Mortality and loss of income of hospitalized victims were considered as direct costs. Results: It was found that 43 victims were 13-24 years of age, 64 were female, 94 were from rural areas, 92 were bitten on the lower limbs, 49 were bitten between 6.00 pm and midnight, 43 attempted pre-hospital first aid, and the median time to hospital was 4.5 hours. Antivenom, supportive therapy, antibiotics, antihistamines, corticosteroids, analgesics, and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs were used. Cellulitis, compartment syndrome, gangrenous foot, psychiatric disorder, and death were the main complications. Most victims spent 1-5 days in hospital and the median cost of treating a snakebite was 2652 KES (~$26). Drugs, ward charges, and nursing procedures were the highest contributors to the total indirect cost. Victims hospitalized for 6-10 days and >10 days incurred 32% and 62% more costs, respectively, compared to those hospitalized for 1-5 days.  Conclusions: The longer snakebite victims are hospitalized, the higher the cost incurred. Continuous medical education on the correct management of snakebites should be encouraged to minimize complications that may increase hospital stays and costs incurred.

Acute Poisonings at a Regional Referral Hospital in Western Kenya.

The emergency department (ED) of the Jaramogi Oginga Odinga Teaching and Referral Hospital (JOOTRH) handles many cases of poisoning. However, there is scant information on the factors, agents, and outcomes of poisoning at the hospital. The aim of this work was to determine the factors, agents, and outcomes of poisoning at JOOTRH. Records of patients who presented to JOOTRH with symptoms of poisoning between January 2011 and December 2016 were retrieved. Data on age, gender, offending agents, time, and season of exposure were collected. Information on the route of exposure, motive, and clinical symptoms of poisoning was also included. Other information included the laboratory evaluation, first aid measures, period of hospitalization, and outcome of poisoning. Mean, standard deviation, frequencies and bar graphs were used to describe the demographic factors of the study population. Multivariate logistic regression was used to determine the strength of association between risk factors and outcome of poisoning among patients. The level of significance for inferential analysis was set at 5%. There were 385 cases of poisoning: 57.9% (223/385) were male, 31.9% (123/385) were 13⁻24 years of age, and 83.9% (323/385) of exposures were in Kisumu County. The peak time of exposure was 6:00⁻00:00, and 23.6% (91/385) presented 1⁻4 h after exposure. About 62.9% (242/385) of the cases were due to accidental poisoning. Snakebites and organophosphates (OPPs) contributed to 33.0% (127/385) and 22.1% (85/385) of all cases, respectively. About 62.1% (239/385) of exposures were oral, and 63.9% (246/385) of all cases occurred in the rainy season. Additionally, 49.2% (60/122) of intentional poisoning was due to family disputes, and 16.1% (10/62) of pre-hospital first aid involved the use of tourniquets and herbal medicine. About 28.6% (110/385) of the victims were subjected to laboratory evaluation and 83.9% (323/385) were hospitalized for between 1⁻5 days. Other results indicated that 80.0% (308/385) responded well to therapy, while 7.3% (28/385) died, 68% (19/28) of whom were male. Furthermore, 39.3% (11/28) of the deaths were related to OPPs. Our findings suggest that the earlier the victims of poisoning get to the hospital, the more likely they are to survive after treatment is initiated. Similarly, victims of poisoning due to parental negligence are more likely to survive after treatment compared to other causes of poisoning, including family disputes, love affairs, snakebites, and psychiatric disorders. The management of JOOTRH should consider allocating resources to support the development of poison management and control.

Analysis of pastoralists' perception on challenges and opportunities for sheep and goat production in Northern Kenya.

Small ruminants' production contributes to livelihood of pastoral communities, but this faces myriad constraints. This study aimed at identifying challenges facing producers of small ruminants, prioritizing diseases and their control measures and documenting opportunities for improvement. Sixteen focus group discussions with livestock owners and 13 key informant interviews were done in selected areas in Mandera County, Northern Kenya, and both quantitative and qualitative data collected using a questionnaire guide. Occurrences of diseases (27.4%) and drought (25%) were consistently ranked high in all groups. Other production challenges included increased predation of livestock, inadequate delivery of veterinary services, and increased livestock mortalities. Peste des Petit ruminants was ranked high with a median rank of 21.5%, while contagious caprine pleuropneumonia and sheep and goat pox were ranked second and third, respectively. Other diseases included tick-borne diseases, helminthosis, and pneumonia. Vaccination was ranked as the most effective control strategy for infectious diseases. Other control measures included recitation of Quran and cauterization. However, several opportunities exist for support of small ruminants' production: increased budgetary allocation for disease control by government, initiation of projects that enhance livestock production in the region by government and its development partners. These findings are useful for policy makers for disease control and organizations that are working on projects that focuses on enhancement of pastoralists' resilience, while future research could also identify appropriate technologies that reduces these impacts.

Identification of production challenges and benefits using value chain mapping of egg food systems in Nairobi, Kenya.

Commercial layer and indigenous chicken farming in Nairobi and associated activities in the egg value chains are a source of livelihood for urban families. A value chain mapping framework was used to describe types of inputs and outputs from chicken farms, challenges faced by producers and their disease control strategies. Commercial layer farms were defined as farms keeping exotic breeds of chicken, whereas indigenous chicken farms kept different cross breeds of indigenous chicken. Four focus group discussions were held with producers of these chickens in peri-urban area: Dagoretti, and one informal settlement: Kibera. Qualitative data were collected on interactions between farmers, sources of farm inputs and buyers of poultry products, simple ranking of production challenges, farmers' perception on diseases affecting chicken and strategies for management of sick chicken and waste products. Value chain profiles were drawn showing sources of inputs and channels for distribution of chicken products. Production challenges and chicken disease management strategies were presented as qualitative summaries. Commercial layer farms in Dagoretti kept an average of 250 chickens (range 50-500); while flock sizes in Kibera were 12 chickens (range 5-20). Farms keeping indigenous chicken had an average of 23 chickens (range 8-40) in Dagoretti, and 10 chickens (range 5-16) in Kibera. Commercial layer farms in Dagoretti obtained chicks from distributors of commercial hatcheries, but farms in Kibera obtained chicks from hawkers who in turn sourced them from distributors of commercial hatcheries. Indigenous chicken farms from Dagoretti relied on natural hatching of fertilised eggs, but indigenous chicken farms in Kibera obtained chicks from their social connection with communities living in rural areas. Outlets for eggs from commercial layer farms included local shops, brokers, restaurants and hawkers, while eggs from indigenous chicken farms were sold to neighbours and restaurants. Sieved chicken manure from Dagoretti area was fed to dairy cattle; whereas non-sieved manure was used as fertilizer on crops. Production challenges included poor feed quality, lack of space for expansion, insecurity, occurrence of diseases and lack of sources of information on chicken management. In Kibera, sick and dead chickens were slaughtered and consumed by households; this practice was not reported in Dagoretti. The chicken layer systems contribute to food security of urban households, yet they have vulnerabilities and deficiencies with regard to disease management and food safety that need to be addressed with support on research and extension.

Constraints and efficiency of cattle marketing in semiarid pastoral system in Kenya.

Livestock keeping is regarded as a store of wealth for pastoralists in Kenya, besides their social and cultural functions. The objective of this study was to prioritize constraints to cattle marketing in a semiarid pastoral area of Narok in Kenya and to analyze efficiency of cattle marketing in transit markets located in Garissa, Kajiado and Narok counties. Primary data collection from traders was done through participatory interviews and market surveys, while time series market price data were obtained from secondary sources. Five focus group interviews were organized with a total of 61 traders in markets from Narok County, while a total of 187 traders who purchased cattle from transit markets provided data on a number of cattle purchased, purpose of purchase, buying prices and mode of transport. Market performance was analyzed through trader's market share, gross margins, Gini coefficient and coefficient of correlation between time series price data. The marketing constraints which were ranked high included lack of market for meat, trekking of cattle to markets, lack of price information and occurrence of diseases. About 10 % of traders purchased over 50 % of cattle which were supplied in markets, revealing a high concentration index. Further, a gross marketing margin per cattle purchased was positive in all markets revealing profitability. Moderate correlation coefficients existed between time series market price data for cattle purchased from Ewaso Ngiro and Mulot markets (r = 0.5; p < 0.05), while those between Dagoretti and Garissa markets were weak (r = 0.2; p > 0.05). The integration of markets, occurrence of diseases and trekking of cattle to markets are factors which may increase a risk of infectious disease spread. These results call for support of disease surveillance activities within markets in pastoral areas so that farms and systems which are connected are protected from threats of infectious diseases.

Constraints to cattle production in a semiarid pastoral system in Kenya.

Livestock keeping is the mainstay for the pastoral community while also providing social and cultural value. This study ranked main production constraints and cattle diseases that impacted livelihood and estimated herd prevalence, incidence rate, and impact of diseases on production parameters in a semiarid pastoral district of Narok in Kenya. Data collection employed participatory techniques including listing, pairwise ranking, disease incidence scoring, proportional piling, and disease impact matrix scoring and this was disaggregated by gender. Production constraints with high scores for impact on livelihood included scarcity of water (19%), lack of extension services (15%), presence of diseases (12%), lack of market for cattle and their products (10%), and recurrent cycle of drought (9%). Diseases with high scores for impact on livelihood were East Coast fever (ECF) (22%) and foot and mouth disease (FMD) (21%). High estimated incidence rates were reported for FMD (67%), trypanosomosis (28%), and ECF (15%), while contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP) had an incidence rate <1%. Milk yield was affected by FMD, ECF, and trypanosomosis, while ECF was the cause of increased mortality. FMD, ECF, CBPP, and brucellosis caused increased abortion, while effect of gender and location of study was not significant. Despite CBPP being regarded as an important disease affecting cattle production in sub-Sahara Africa, its estimated incidence rate in herds was low. This study indicates what issues should be prioritized by livestock policy for pastoral areas.

Factors influencing choice of veterinary service provider by pastoralist in Kenya.

This study analyzed the determinants for choice of animal health providers in a semiarid pastoral area with an aim of identifying specific attributes that could be targeted for intervention to enhance pastoralist access to quality veterinary services. The data were collected through administration of semi-structured questionnaires to 350 randomly selected household heads in different locations in Narok County of Kenya. Most of these respondents had no formal education (66.9%), and most households were headed by men (88.9%). The men were in control of sales (84.2%), purchases (83.7%), and treatment of sick cattle (70.3%), while women were responsible for milking (83.8%). Animal health services were delivered by drug stockists (87.76%) and government veterinarians (12.24%). The time spent while seeking animal health services and transport cost were specific attributes with impact on the probability of choice for service providers. Although distance covered to the preferred service provider was a significant attribute, it was inversely related to the probability of choice. The other factors including herd sizes, age and sex of household head, cost incurred per visit, level of education of household head, and the number of visits did not have significant impact on choices. These findings support commercialization of veterinary services in marginalized areas where the delivery of essential animal health services such as disease control programs are often viewed as a public good. In order to enhance delivery of veterinary services in these areas, it is proposed that public and private means are investigated to support qualified veterinarians and to strengthen the activities of untrained personnel operating drug outlets.

Productivity in different cattle production systems in Kenya.

Cattle are kept as an important source of livelihood in many Kenyan farming households whilst also having cultural and social value. A review was undertaken to estimate productivity in the three main Kenyan cattle production systems: small-scale dairy and meat; small-scale dairy; and large-scale dairy and meat. Data on production parameters were collected through a systematic literature search of electronic databases for peer reviewed and grey literature. The parameters included were reproductive rates, mortality rates and yields. Prices for livestock and livestock products were estimated from markets. The data were used to estimate net output from cattle using the Livestock Productivity Efficiency Calculator (LPEC), a deterministic steady state model which measures productivity as net output per megajoule (MJ) of metabolisable energy (ME). The estimated net outputs per livestock unit year(-1) were USD 146.6, USD 215.1 and USD 84.8 in the large-scale dairy and meat, small-scale dairy and meat and small-scale dairy systems, respectively. Milk production contributed significantly to net output in all systems and was 91.8 % of total output in small-scale dairy. Cattle sales had the highest contribution to net output in large-scale dairy and meat system (45.1 %). Sensitivity analysis indicated that output was most affected by milk yield, age and weight at maturity and parturition rate. The productivity differences between the production systems call for more detailed research on the constraints to the production systems such as diseases, and to describe the benefits that farmers and society would obtain from disease control and improved management.