Digital Health Interventions for Hypertension Management in US Populations Experiencing Health Disparities: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

Importance: Hypertension remains a leading factor associated with cardiovascular disease, and demographic and socioeconomic disparities in blood pressure (BP) control persist. While advances in digital health technologies have increased individuals' access to care for hypertension, few studies have analyzed the use of digital health interventions in vulnerable populations. Objective: To assess the association between digital health interventions and changes in BP and to characterize tailored strategies for populations experiencing health disparities. Data Sources: In this systematic review and meta-analysis, a systematic search identified studies evaluating digital health interventions for BP management in the Cochrane Library, Ovid Embase, Google Scholar, Ovid MEDLINE, PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science databases from inception until October 30, 2023. Study Selection: Included studies were randomized clinical trials or cohort studies that investigated digital health interventions for managing hypertension in adults; presented change in systolic BP (SBP) or baseline and follow-up SBP levels; and emphasized social determinants of health and/or health disparities, including a focus on marginalized populations that have historically been underserved or digital health interventions that were culturally or linguistically tailored to a population with health disparities. The study followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guideline. Data Extraction and Synthesis: Two reviewers extracted and verified data. Mean differences in BP between treatment and control groups were analyzed using a random-effects model. Main Outcomes and Measures: Primary outcomes included mean differences (95% CIs) in SBP and diastolic BP (DBP) from baseline to 6 and 12 months of follow-up between digital health intervention and control groups. Shorter- and longer-term follow-up durations were also assessed, and sensitivity analyses accounted for baseline BP levels. Results: A total of 28 studies (representing 8257 participants) were included (overall mean participant age, 57.4 years [range, 46-71 years]; 4962 [60.1%], female). Most studies examined multicomponent digital health interventions incorporating remote BP monitoring (18 [64.3%]), community health workers or skilled nurses (13 [46.4%]), and/or cultural tailoring (21 [75.0%]). Sociodemographic characteristics were similar between intervention and control groups. Between the intervention and control groups, there were statistically significant mean differences in SBP at 6 months (-4.24 mm Hg; 95% CI, -7.33 to -1.14 mm Hg; P = .01) and SBP changes at 12 months (-4.30 mm Hg; 95% CI, -8.38 to -0.23 mm Hg; P = .04). Few studies (4 [14.3%]) reported BP changes and hypertension control beyond 1 year. Conclusions and Relevance: In this systematic review and meta-analysis of digital health interventions for hypertension management in populations experiencing health disparities, BP reductions were greater in the intervention groups compared with the standard care groups. The findings suggest that tailored initiatives that leverage digital health may have the potential to advance equity in hypertension outcomes.

Racial/Ethnic Disparities in Aortic Valve Replacement Among Medicare Beneficiaries in the United States, 2012-2019.

PURPOSE: There are concerns that transcatheter or surgical aortic valve replacement (TAVR/SAVR) procedures are preferentially available to White patients. Our objective was to examine differences in utilization of aortic valve replacement and outcomes by race/ethnicity in the US for patients with aortic stenosis. METHODS: We performed a serial cross-sectional cohort study of 299,976 Medicare beneficiaries hospitalized with principal diagnosis of aortic stenosis between 2012 and 2019 stratified by self-reported race/ethnicity (Black, Hispanic, Asian, Native American, and White). Outcomes included aortic valve replacement rates within 6 months of index hospitalization and associated procedural outcomes, including 30-day readmission, 30-day and 1-year mortality. RESULTS: Within 6 months of an index admission for aortic stenosis, 86.8% (122,457 SAVR; 138,026 TAVR) patients underwent aortic valve replacement. Overall, compared with White people, Black (HR 0.87 [0.85-0.89]), Hispanic (0.92 [0.88-0.96]), and Asian (0.95 [0.91-0.99]) people were less likely to receive aortic valve replacement. Among patients who were admitted emergently/urgently, White patients (41.1%, 95% CI, 40.7-41.4) had a significantly higher aortic valve replacement rate compared with Black (29.6%, 95% CI, 28.3-30.9), Hispanic (36.6%, 95% CI, 34.0-39.3), and Asian patients (35.4%, 95% CI, 32.3-38.9). Aortic valve replacement rates increased annually for all race/ethnicities. There were no significant differences in 30-day or 1-year mortality by race/ethnicity. CONCLUSIONS: Aortic valve replacement rates within 6 months of aortic stenosis admission are lower for Black, Hispanic, and Asian people compared to White people. These race-related differences in aortic stenosis treatment reflect complex issues in diagnosis and management, warranting a comprehensive reassessment of the entire care spectrum for disadvantaged populations.

Sex Difference in Outcomes of Acute Myocardial Infarction in Young Patients.

BACKGROUND: Younger women experience worse health status than men after their index episode of acute myocardial infarction (AMI). However, whether women have a higher risk for cardiovascular and noncardiovascular hospitalizations in the year after discharge is unknown. OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to determine sex differences in causes and timing of 1-year outcomes after AMI in people aged 18 to 55 years. METHODS: Data from the VIRGO (Variation in Recovery: Role of Gender on Outcomes of Young AMI Patients) study, which enrolled young patients with AMI across 103 U.S. hospitals, were used. Sex differences in all-cause and cause-specific hospitalizations were compared by calculating incidence rates ([IRs] per 1,000 person-years) and IR ratios with 95% CIs. We then performed sequential modeling to evaluate the sex difference by calculating subdistribution HRs (SHRs) accounting for deaths. RESULTS: Among 2,979 patients, at least 1 hospitalization occurred among 905 patients (30.4%) in the year after discharge. The leading causes of hospitalization were coronary related (IR: 171.8 [95% CI: 153.6-192.2] among women vs 117.8 [95% CI: 97.3-142.6] among men), followed by noncardiac hospitalization (IR: 145.8 [95% CI: 129.2-164.5] among women vs 69.6 [95% CI: 54.5-88.9] among men). Furthermore, a sex difference was present for coronary-related hospitalizations (SHR: 1.33; 95% CI: 1.04-1.70; P = 0.02) and noncardiac hospitalizations (SHR: 1.51; 95% CI: 1.13-2.07; P = 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: Young women with AMI experience more adverse outcomes than men in the year after discharge. Coronary-related hospitalizations were most common, but noncardiac hospitalizations showed the most significant sex disparity.

Choice of antihypertensive agent in isolated systolic hypertension and isolated diastolic hypertension: A secondary analysis of the ALLHAT trial.

Despite broad treatment recommendations, there are limited published reports comparing the efficacy of different antihypertensive agents in patients with isolated systolic hypertension or isolated diastolic hypertension. This study was a secondary analysis of the Antihypertensive and Lipid-Lowering Treatment to Prevent Heart Attack Trial. We compared the use of chlorthalidone, amlodipine, or lisinopril on the primary outcome of combined coronary heart disease, stroke, or all-cause mortality in patients with isolated systolic hypertension or isolated diastolic hypertension.

Characteristics of patients referred to a cardiovascular disease clinic for post-acute sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 infection.

Introduction: There is limited literature on cardiovascular manifestations of post-acute sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 infection (PASC). Methods: This observational study aimed to describe the characteristics, diagnostic evaluations, and new cardiac diagnoses in patients referred to a cardiovascular disease clinic designed for patients with PASC, and to identify factors associated with cardiovascular symptoms with no identifiable cardiac pathology. Results: Of 126 patients, average age was 46 years, and 34 % were male. Patients presented on average five months after COVID-19 diagnosis. The most common symptoms were dyspnea (52 %), chest pain/pressure (48 %), palpitations (44 %), and fatigue (42 %), commonly associated with exertion or exercise intolerance. New cardiovascular diseases were present in 23 % of cases. The remainder exhibited common symptoms which we termed "cardiovascular PASC syndrome." Discussion: We found that only one in four patients had a new cardiovascular diagnosis, but most displayed a pattern of symptoms associated with exercise intolerance.

National Trends in Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Antihypertensive Medication Use and Blood Pressure Control Among Adults With Hypertension, 2011-2018.

Poor hypertension awareness and underuse of guideline-recommended medications are critical factors contributing to poor hypertension control. Using data from 8095 hypertensive people aged ≥18 years from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (2011-2018), we examined recent trends in racial and ethnic differences in awareness and antihypertensive medication use, and their association with racial and ethnic differences in hypertension control. Between 2011 and 2018, age-adjusted hypertension awareness declined for Black, Hispanic, and White individuals, but the 3 outcomes increased or did not change for Asian individuals. Compared with White individuals, Black individuals had a similar awareness (odds ratio, 1.20 [0.96-1.45]) and overall treatment rates (1.04 [0.84-1.25]), and received more intensive antihypertensive medication if treated (1.41 [1.27-1.56]), but had a lower control rate (0.72 [0.61-0.83]). Asian and Hispanic individuals had significantly lower awareness rates (0.69 [0.52-0.85] and 0.74 [0.59-0.89]), overall treatment rates (0.72 [0.57-0.88] and 0.69 [0.55-0.82]), received less intensive medication if treated (0.60 [0.50-0.72] and 0.86 [0.75-0.96]), and had lower control rates (0.66 [0.54-0.79] and 0.69 [0.57-0.81]). The racial and ethnic differences in awareness, treatment, and control persisted over the study period and were consistent across age, sex, and income strata. Lower awareness and treatment were significantly associated with lower control in Asian and Hispanic individuals (P<0.01 for all) but not in Black individuals. These findings highlight the need for interventions to improve awareness and treatment among Asian and Hispanic individuals, and more investigation into the downstream factors that may contribute to the poor hypertension control among Black individuals.

Trends in Transcatheter and Surgical Aortic Valve Replacement Among Older Adults in the United States.

BACKGROUND: Recent trends, including survival beyond 30 days, in aortic valve replacement (AVR) following the expansion of indications for transcatheter aortic valve replacement (TAVR) are not well-understood. OBJECTIVES: The authors sought to characterize the trends in characteristics and outcomes of patients undergoing AVR. METHODS: The authors analyzed Medicare beneficiaries who underwent TAVR and SAVR in 2012 to 2019. They evaluated case volume, demographics, comorbidities, 1-year mortality, and discharge disposition. Cox proportional hazard models were used to assess the annual change in outcomes. RESULTS: Per 100,000 beneficiary-years, AVR increased from 107 to 156, TAVR increased from 19 to 101, whereas SAVR declined from 88 to 54. The median [interquartile range] age remained similar from 77 [71-83] years to 78 [72-84] years for overall AVR, decreased from 84 [79-88] years to 81 [75-86] years for TAVR, and decreased from 76 [71-81] years to 72 [68-77] years for SAVR. For all AVR patients, the prevalence of comorbidities remained relatively stable. The 1-year mortality for all AVR decreased from 11.9% to 9.4%. Annual change in the adjusted odds of 1-year mortality was 0.93 (95% CI: 0.92-0.94) for TAVR and 0.98 (95% CI: 0.97-0.99) for SAVR, and 0.94 (95% CI: 0.93-0.95) for all AVR. Patients discharged to home after AVR increased from 24.2% to 54.7%, primarily driven by increasing home discharge after TAVR. CONCLUSIONS: The advent of TAVR has led to about a 60% increase in overall AVR in older adults. Improving outcomes in AVR as a whole following the advent of TAVR with increased access is a reassuring trend.

National Trends and Disparities in Hospitalization for Acute Hypertension Among Medicare Beneficiaries (1999-2019).

BACKGROUND: In the past 2 decades, hypertension control in the US population has not improved and there are widening disparities. Little is known about progress in reducing hospitalizations for acute hypertension. METHODS: We conducted serial cross-sectional analysis of Medicare fee-for-service beneficiaries age 65 years or older between 1999 and 2019 using Medicare denominator and inpatient files. We evaluated trends in national hospitalization rates for acute hypertension overall and by demographic and geographical subgroups. We identified all beneficiaries admitted with a primary discharge diagnosis of acute hypertension on the basis of International Classification of Diseases codes. We then used a mixed effects model with a Poisson link function and state-specific random intercepts, adjusting for age, sex, race and ethnicity, and dual-eligible status, to evaluate trends in hospitalizations. RESULTS: The sample consisted of 397 238 individual Medicare fee-for-service beneficiaries. From 1999 through 2019, the annual hospitalization rates for acute hypertension increased significantly, from 51.5 to 125.9 per 100 000 beneficiary-years; the absolute increase was most pronounced among the following subgroups: adults ≥85 years (66.8-274.1), females (64.9-160.1), Black people (144.4-369.5), and Medicare/Medicaid insured (dual-eligible, 93.1-270.0). Across all subgroups, Black adults had the highest hospitalization rate in 2019, and there was a significant increase in the differences in hospitalizations between Black and White people from 1999 to 2019. Marked geographic variation was also present, with the highest hospitalization rates in the South. Among patients hospitalized for acute hypertension, the observed 30-day and 90-day all-cause mortality rates (95% CI) decreased from 2.6% (2.27-2.83) and 5.6% (5.18-5.99) to 1.7% (1.53-1.80) and 3.7% (3.45-3.84) and 30-day and 90-day all-cause readmission rates decreased from 15.7% (15.1-16.4) and 29.4% (28.6-30.2) to 11.8% (11.5-12.1) and 24.0% (23.5-24.6). CONCLUSIONS: Among Medicare fee-for-service beneficiaries age 65 years or older, hospitalization rates for acute hypertension increased substantially and significantly from 1999 to 2019. Black adults had the highest hospitalization rate in 2019 across age, sex, race and ethnicity, and dual-eligible strata. There was significant national variation, with the highest rates generally in the South.

Trends in Differences in Health Status and Health Care Access and Affordability by Race and Ethnicity in the United States, 1999-2018.

IMPORTANCE: The elimination of racial and ethnic differences in health status and health care access is a US goal, but it is unclear whether the country has made progress over the last 2 decades. OBJECTIVE: To determine 20-year trends in the racial and ethnic differences in self-reported measures of health status and health care access and affordability among adults in the US. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: Serial cross-sectional study of National Health Interview Survey data, 1999-2018, that included 596 355 adults. EXPOSURES: Self-reported race, ethnicity, and income level. MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES: Rates and racial and ethnic differences in self-reported health status and health care access and affordability. RESULTS: The study included 596 355 adults (mean [SE] age, 46.2 [0.07] years, 51.8% [SE, 0.10] women), of whom 4.7% were Asian, 11.8% were Black, 13.8% were Latino/Hispanic, and 69.7% were White. The estimated percentages of people with low income were 28.2%, 46.1%, 51.5%, and 23.9% among Asian, Black, Latino/Hispanic, and White individuals, respectively. Black individuals with low income had the highest estimated prevalence of poor or fair health status (29.1% [95% CI, 26.5%-31.7%] in 1999 and 24.9% [95% CI, 21.8%-28.3%] in 2018), while White individuals with middle and high income had the lowest (6.4% [95% CI, 5.9%-6.8%] in 1999 and 6.3% [95% CI, 5.8%-6.7%] in 2018). Black individuals had a significantly higher estimated prevalence of poor or fair health status than White individuals in 1999, regardless of income strata (P < .001 for the overall and low-income groups; P = .03 for middle and high-income group). From 1999 to 2018, racial and ethnic gaps in poor or fair health status did not change significantly, with or without income stratification, except for a significant decrease in the difference between White and Black individuals with low income (-6.7 percentage points [95% CI, -11.3 to -2.0]; P = .005); the difference in 2018 was no longer statistically significant (P = .13). Black and White individuals had the highest levels of self-reported functional limitations, which increased significantly among all groups over time. There were significant reductions in the racial and ethnic differences in some self-reported measures of health care access, but not affordability, with and without income stratification. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE: In a serial cross-sectional survey study of US adults from 1999 to 2018, racial and ethnic differences in self-reported health status, access, and affordability improved in some subgroups, but largely persisted.

Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Health of Adults in the United States: A 20-Year National Health Interview Survey Analysis, 1999-2018.

IMPORTANCE: Thirty-five years ago, the Heckler Report described health disparities among minority populations in the US. Since then, policies have been implemented to address these disparities. However, a recent evaluation of progress towards improving the health and health equity among US adults is lacking. OBJECTIVES: To evaluate racial/ethnic disparities in the physical and mental health of US adults over the last 2 decades. DESIGN: Cross-sectional. SETTING: National Health Interview Survey data, years 1999-2018. PARTICIPANTS: Adults aged 18-85 years. EXPOSURE: Race/ethnicity subgroups (non-Hispanic White, non-Hispanic Black, non-Hispanic Asian, Hispanic). MAIN OUTCOME AND MEASURES: Proportion of adults reporting poor/fair health status, severe psychological distress, functional limitation, and insufficient sleep. We also estimated the gap between non-Hispanic White and the other subgroups for these four outcomes. RESULTS: We included 596,355 adults (mean age 46 years, 51.8% women), of which 69.7%, 13.8%, 11.8% and 4.7% identified as non-Hispanic White, Hispanic, non-Hispanic Black, and non-Hispanic Asian, respectively. Between 1999 and 2018, Black individuals fared worse on most measures of health, with 18.7% (95% CI 17.1-20.4) and 41.1% (95% CI 38.7-43.5) reporting poor/fair health and insufficient sleep in 2018 compared with 11.1% (95% CI 10.5- 11.7) and 31.2% (95% CI 30.3-32.1) among White individuals. Notably, between 1999-2018, there was no significant decrease in the gap in poor/fair health status between White individuals and Black (-0.07% per year, 95% CI -0.16-0.01) and Hispanic (-0.03% per year, 95% CI -0.07- 0.02) individuals, and an increase in the gap in sleep between White individuals and Black (+0.2% per year, 95% CI 0.1-0.4) and Hispanic (+0.3% per year, 95% CI 0.1-0.4) individuals. Additionally, there was no significant decrease in adults reporting poor/fair health status and an increase in adults reporting severe psychological distress, functional limitation, and insufficient sleep. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE: The marked racial/ethnic disparities in health of US adults have not improved over the last 20 years. Moreover, the self-perceived health of US adults worsened during this time. These findings highlight the need to re-examine the initiatives seeking to promote health equity and improve health.

Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Access to Health Care Among Adults in the United States: A 20-Year National Health Interview Survey Analysis, 1999-2018.

IMPORTANCE: Racial and ethnic disparities plague the US health care system despite efforts to eliminate them. To understand what has been achieved amid these efforts, a comprehensive study from the population perspective is needed. OBJECTIVES: To determine trends in rates and racial/ethnic disparities of key access to care measures among adults in the US in the last two decades. DESIGN: Cross-sectional. SETTING: Data from the National Health Interview Survey, 1999-2018. PARTICIPANTS: Individuals >18 years old. EXPOSURE: Race and ethnicity: non-Hispanic Black, non-Hispanic Asian, non-Hispanic White, Hispanic. MAIN OUTCOME AND MEASURES: Rates of lack of insurance coverage, lack of a usual source of care, and foregone/delayed medical care due to cost. We also estimated the gap between non-Hispanic White and the other subgroups for these outcomes. RESULTS: We included 596,355 adults, of which 69.7% identified as White, 11.8% as Black, 4.7% as Asian, and 13.8% as Hispanic. The proportion uninsured and the rates of lacking a usual source of care remained stable across all 4 race/ethnicity subgroups up to 2009, while rates of foregone/delayed medical care due to cost increased. Between 2010 and 2015, the percentage of uninsured diminished for all, with the steepest reduction among Hispanics (-2.1% per year). In the same period, rates of no usual source of care declined only among Hispanics (-1.2% per year) while rates of foregone/delayed medical care due to cost decreased for all. No substantial changes were observed from 2016-2018 in any outcome across subgroups. Compared with 1999, in 2018 the rates of foregone/delayed medical care due to cost were higher for all (+3.1% among Whites, +3.1% among Blacks, +0.5% among Asians, and +2.2% among Hispanics) without significant change in gaps; rates of no usual source of care were not significantly different among Whites or Blacks but were lower among Hispanics (-4.9%) and Asians (-6.4%). CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE: Insurance coverage increased for all, but millions of individuals remained uninsured or underinsured with increasing rates of unmet medical needs due to cost. Those identifying as non-Hispanic Black and Hispanic continue to experience more barriers to health care services compared with non-Hispanic White individuals. KEY POINTS: Question: In the last 2 decades, what has been achieved in reducing barriers to access to care and race/ethnicity-associated disparities?Findings: Using National Health Interview Survey data from 1999-2018, we found that insurance coverage increased across all 4 major race/ethnicity groups. However, rates of unmet medical needs due to cost increased without reducing the respective racial/ethnic disparities, and little-to-no change occurred in rates of individuals who have no usual source of care.Meaning: Despite increased coverage, millions of Americans continued to experience barriers to access to care, which were disproportionately more prevalent among those identifying as Black or Hispanic.

Modernizing the World Health Organization List of Essential Medicines for Preventing and Controlling Cardiovascular Diseases.

The World Health Organization (WHO) Model List of Essential Medicines (EML) is a key tool for improving global access to medicines for all conditions, including cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). The WHO EML is used by member states to determine their national essential medicine lists and policies and to guide procurement of medicines in the public sector. Here, we describe our efforts to modernize the EML for global CVD prevention and control. We review the recent history of applications to add, delete, and change indications for CVD medicines, with the aim of aligning the list with contemporary clinical practice guidelines. We have identified 4 issues that affect decisions for the EML and may strengthen future applications: 1) cost and cost-effectiveness; 2) presence in clinical practice guidelines; 3) feedback loops; and 4) community engagement. We share our lessons to stimulate others in the global CVD community to embark on similar efforts.

Development, Testing, and Implementation of a Training Curriculum for Nonphysician Health Workers to Reduce Cardiovascular Disease.

BACKGROUND: Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the leading cause of death worldwide. The need to address CVD is greatest in low- and middle-income countries where there is a shortage of trained health workers in CVD detection, prevention, and control. OBJECTIVES: Based on the growing evidence that many elements of chronic disease management can be shifted to nonphysician health care workers (NPHW), the HOPE-4 (Heart Outcomes Prevention and Evaluation Program) aimed to develop, test, and implement a training curriculum on CVD prevention and control in Colombia, Malaysia, and low-resource settings in Canada. METHODS: Curriculum development followed an iterative and phased approach where evidence-based guidelines, revised blood pressure treatment algorithms, and culturally relevant risk factor counseling were incorporated. Through a pilot-training process with high school students in Canada, the curriculum was further refined. Implementation of the curriculum in Colombia, Malaysia, and Canada occurred through partner organizations as the HOPE-4 team coordinated the program from Hamilton, Ontario, Canada. In addition to content on the burden of disease, cardiovascular system pathophysiology, and CVD risk factors, the curriculum also included evaluations such as module tests, in-class exercises, and observed structured clinical examinations, which were administered by the local partner organizations. These evaluations served as indicators of adequate uptake of curriculum content as well as readiness to work as an NPHW in the field. RESULTS: Overall, 51 NPHW successfully completed the training curriculum with an average score of 93.19% on module tests and 84.76% on the observed structured clinical examinations. Since implementation, the curriculum has also been adapted to the World Health Organization's HEARTS Technical Package, which was launched in 2016 to improve management of CVD in primary health care. CONCLUSIONS: The robust curriculum development, testing, and implementation process described affirm that NPHW in diverse settings can be trained in implementing measures for CVD prevention and control.

Preventing cardiovascular disease in older adults: One size does not fit all.

Frailty and cardiovascular disease are highly interconnected and increase in prevalence with age. Identifying frailty allows for a personalized cardiovascular risk prescription and individualized management of hypertension, hyperlipidemia, diabetes, and lifestyle in the aging population.

Maintenance of Ideal Cardiovascular Health and Coronary Artery Calcium Progression in Low-Risk Men and Women in the Framingham Heart Study.

BACKGROUND: Ideal cardiovascular health (CVH) is associated with a lower risk of cardiovascular disease and freedom from coronary artery calcium (CAC). Prospective data on the association between maintenance of optimal CVH and the progression of subclinical coronary atherosclerosis are limited. We assessed the influence of unfavorable versus favorable CVH on the incidence of CAC progression. METHODS AND RESULTS: The study population consisted of 1119 FHS (Framingham Heart Study) participants who attended the serial FHS MDCT I and MDCT II study (Multi-Detector Computed Tomography) and had a zero Agatston CAC score at baseline. CVH status was defined using 6 CVH metrics from the American Heart Association definition. CAC progression was defined by an increase in Agatston CAC score to ≥3.4. Generalized estimating equations were applied to identify significant associations of CAC progression with both the baseline measurement of CVH and the longitudinal maintenance of CVH. After follow-up (mean, 6.1 years), we observed CAC progression in 191 participants (17.1%). Participants with unfavorable CVH at baseline had a greater risk of CAC progression (odds ratio, 2.43; 95% confidence interval, 1.40-4.23; P=0.0017). In addition, each unit decrease in ideal CVH metric was associated with an increase in CAC progression (odds ratio, 1.15; 95% confidence interval, 0.99-1.34; P=0.067), after adjustment for baseline ideal CVH metrics. CONCLUSIONS: Significant associations between an unfavorable CVH profile and CAC progression support public health measures that seek to prevent cardiovascular disease by promoting favorable CVH profiles in persons free of clinical and subclinical cardiovascular disease.