ABSTRACT
Proper characterization of nanoparticle (NP) interactions with environmentally relevant bacteria under representative conditions is necessary to enable their sustainable manufacture, use, and disposal. Previous nanotoxicology research based on planktonic growth has not adequately explored biofilms, which serve as the predominant mode of bacterial growth in natural and engineered environments. Copper nanoparticle (Cu-NP) impacts on biofilms were compared with respective planktonic cultures of the ammonium-oxidizing Nitrosomonas europaea, nitrogen-fixing Azotobacter vinelandii, and denitrifying Paracoccus denitrificans using a suite of independent toxicity diagnostics. Median inhibitory concentration (IC50) values derived from adenosine triphosphate (ATP) for Cu-NPs were lower in N. europaea biofilms (19.6 ± 15.3 mg/L) than in planktonic cells (49.0 ± 8.0 mg/L). However, in absorbance-based growth assays, compared with unexposed controls, N. europaea growth rates in biofilms were twice as resilient to inhibition than those in planktonic cultures. Similarly, relative to unexposed controls, growth rates and yields of P. denitrificans in biofilms exposed to Cu-NPs were 40-fold to 50-fold less inhibited than those in planktonic cells. Physiological evaluation of ammonium oxidation and nitrate reduction suggested that biofilms were also less inhibited by Cu-NPs than planktonic cells. Furthermore, functional gene expression for ammonium oxidation (amoA) and nitrite reduction (nirK) showed lower inhibition by NPs in biofilms relative to planktonic-grown cells. These results suggest that biofilms mitigate NP impacts, and that nitrogen-cycling bacteria in wastewater, wetlands, and soils might be more resilient to NPs than planktonic-based assessments suggest.
