ABSTRACT
S-adenosyl-L-methionine (SAM) is the major methyl donor in cells and it is also used for the biosynthesis of polyamines and the plant hormone ethylene. During climacteric ripening of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum 'Bonaparte'), ethylene production rises considerably which makes it an ideal object to study SAM involvement. We examined in ripening fruit how a 1-MCP treatment affects SAM usage by the three major SAM-associated pathways. The 1-MCP treatment inhibited autocatalytic ethylene production but did not affect SAM levels. We also observed that 1-(malonylamino)cyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid formation during ripening is ethylene dependent. SAM decarboxylase expression was also found to be upregulated by ethylene. Nonetheless polyamine content was higher in 1-MCP-treated fruit. This leads to the conclusion that the ethylene and polyamine pathway can operate simultaneously. We also observed a higher methylation capacity in 1-MCP-treated fruit. During fruit ripening substantial methylation reactions occur which are gradually inhibited by the methylation product S-adenosyl-L-homocysteine (SAH). SAH accumulation is caused by a drop in adenosine kinase expression, which is not observed in 1-MCP-treated fruit. We can conclude that tomato fruit possesses the capability to simultaneously consume SAM during ripening to ensure a high rate of ethylene and polyamine production and transmethylation reactions. SAM usage during ripening requires a complex cellular regulation mechanism in order to control SAM levels.
Subject(s)
Cyclopropanes/pharmacology , Ethylenes/metabolism , Plant Growth Regulators/metabolism , Polyamines/metabolism , S-Adenosylmethionine/metabolism , Solanum lycopersicum/physiology , Adenosine Kinase/genetics , Adenosine Kinase/metabolism , Adenosylmethionine Decarboxylase/genetics , Adenosylmethionine Decarboxylase/metabolism , Cyclopropanes/metabolism , Fruit/drug effects , Fruit/enzymology , Fruit/genetics , Fruit/physiology , Gene Expression Regulation, Plant , Solanum lycopersicum/drug effects , Solanum lycopersicum/enzymology , Solanum lycopersicum/genetics , Metabolic Networks and Pathways , Methylation , Plant Proteins/genetics , Plant Proteins/metabolism , Polyamines/analysis , S-Adenosylhomocysteine/metabolism , S-Adenosylmethionine/analysis , Up-RegulationABSTRACT
The concept of system 1 and system 2 ethylene biosynthesis during climacteric fruit ripening was initially described four decades ago. Although much is known about fruit development and climacteric ripening, little information is available about how ethylene biosynthesis is regulated during the postclimacteric phase. A targeted systems biology approach revealed a novel regulatory mechanism of ethylene biosynthesis of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) when fruit have reached their maximal ethylene production level and which is characterized by a decline in ethylene biosynthesis. Ethylene production is shut down at the level of 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid oxidase. At the same time, 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid synthase activity increases. Analysis of the Yang cycle showed that the Yang cycle genes are regulated in a coordinated way and are highly expressed during postclimacteric ripening. Postclimacteric red tomatoes on the plant showed only a moderate regulation of 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid synthase and Yang cycle genes compared with the regulation in detached fruit. Treatment of red fruit with 1-methylcyclopropane and ethephon revealed that the shut-down mechanism in ethylene biosynthesis is developmentally programmed and only moderately ethylene sensitive. We propose that the termination of autocatalytic ethylene biosynthesis of system 2 in ripe fruit delays senescence and preserves the fruit until seed dispersal.
Subject(s)
Ethylenes/biosynthesis , Fruit/growth & development , Metabolic Networks and Pathways , Metabolomics/methods , Solanum lycopersicum/growth & development , Systems Biology/methods , Amino Acid Oxidoreductases/metabolism , Amino Acids, Cyclic/metabolism , Biocatalysis , Blotting, Western , Cell Respiration , Fruit/cytology , Fruit/enzymology , Fruit/genetics , Gene Expression Profiling , Gene Expression Regulation, Plant , Genes, Plant/genetics , Lyases/metabolism , Solanum lycopersicum/cytology , Solanum lycopersicum/enzymology , Solanum lycopersicum/genetics , Solanum lycopersicum/physiology , Models, Biological , Plant Proteins/genetics , Plant Proteins/metabolism , Principal Component Analysis , Reproducibility of ResultsABSTRACT
5'-Methylthioadenosine (MTA) is the common by-product of polyamine (PA), nicotianamine (NA), and ethylene biosynthesis in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana). The methylthiol moiety of MTA is salvaged by 5'-methylthioadenosine nucleosidase (MTN) in a reaction producing methylthioribose (MTR) and adenine. The MTN double mutant, mtn1-1mtn2-1, retains approximately 14% of the MTN enzyme activity present in the wild type and displays a pleiotropic phenotype that includes altered vasculature and impaired fertility. These abnormal traits were associated with increased MTA levels, altered PA profiles, and reduced NA content. Exogenous feeding of PAs partially recovered fertility, whereas NA supplementation improved fertility and also reversed interveinal chlorosis. The analysis of PA synthase crystal structures containing bound MTA suggests that the corresponding enzyme activities are sensitive to available MTA. Mutant plants that expressed either MTN or human methylthioadenosine phosphorylase (which metabolizes MTA without producing MTR) appeared wild type, proving that the abnormal traits of the mutant are due to MTA accumulation rather than reduced MTR. Based on our results, we propose that the key targets affected by increased MTA content are thermospermine synthase activity and spermidine-dependent posttranslational modification of eukaryotic initiation factor 5A.
Subject(s)
Arabidopsis/growth & development , Arabidopsis/metabolism , Deoxyadenosines/metabolism , Plant Vascular Bundle/growth & development , Plant Vascular Bundle/metabolism , Thionucleosides/metabolism , Arabidopsis/genetics , Arabidopsis/ultrastructure , Arabidopsis Proteins/genetics , Arabidopsis Proteins/metabolism , Azetidinecarboxylic Acid/analogs & derivatives , Azetidinecarboxylic Acid/metabolism , Azetidinecarboxylic Acid/pharmacology , Biosynthetic Pathways/drug effects , Deoxyadenosines/chemistry , Electrophoresis, Gel, Two-Dimensional , Fertility/drug effects , Gene Expression Regulation, Plant/drug effects , Genetic Complementation Test , Models, Biological , Models, Molecular , Mutation/genetics , Phenotype , Plant Vascular Bundle/drug effects , Pollen/drug effects , Pollen/growth & development , Pollen/ultrastructure , Polyamines/metabolism , Polyamines/pharmacology , RNA, Messenger/genetics , RNA, Messenger/metabolism , Reproduction/drug effects , Seeds/growth & development , Seeds/metabolism , Thioglycosides/metabolism , Thionucleosides/chemistryABSTRACT
The methionine or Yang cycle recycles Met from 5'-methylthioadenosine (MTA) which is produced from S-adenosyl-L-methionine (SAM) as a by-product of ethylene, polyamines, and nicotianamine (NA) synthesis. MTA nucleosidase is encoded by two genes in Arabidopsis thaliana, MTN1 and MTN2. Analysis of T-DNA insertion mutants and of wt revealed that MTN1 provides approximately 80% of the total MTN activity. Severe knock down of MTN enzyme activity in the mtn1-1 and mtn1-2 allelic lines resulted in accumulation of SAM/dSAM (decarboxylated SAM) and of MTA in seedlings grown on MTA as sulfur source. While ethylene and NA synthesis were not altered in mtn1-1 and mtn1-2 seedlings grown on MTA, putrescine and spermine were elevated. By contrast, mtn2-1 and mtn2-2 seedlings with near wt enzyme activity had wt levels of SAM/dSAM, MTA, and polyamines. In addition to the metabolic phenotypes, mtn1-1 and mtn1-2 seedlings were growth retarded, while seedlings of wt, mtn2-1, and mtn2-2 showed normal growth on 500 microm MTA. The double knock down mutant mtn1-1/mtn2-1 was sterile. In conclusion, the data presented identify MTA as a crucial metabolite that acts as a regulatory link between the Yang cycle and polyamine biosynthesis and identifies MTA nucleosidase as a crucial enzyme of the Yang cycle.
