Soledad y ansiedad durante el confinamiento por COVID-19. El efecto mediador de la regulación emocional / Loneliness and anxiety during COVID-19 lockdown. The mediating effect of emotion regulation

Resumen El confinamiento ocasionado por la pandemia del COVID-19 ha impactado en la vida de los estudiantes universitarios en todo el mundo. Conocer sus efectos en la salud mental y el comportamiento será una prioridad en los siguientes años. En este contexto, el objetivo de la presente investigación fue analizar por primera vez las relaciones directas e indirectas entre la experiencia de soledad, las estrategias de regulación emocional desadaptativas (rumiación, evitación, supresión, catastrofización y autoculpa) y la ansiedad en una muestra de universitarios mexicanos. Con base en él, se hipotetizó que las estrategias de regulación emocional desadaptativas mediarían la relación entre la soledad y la ansiedad. Para lograr este propósito se especificó un modelo de ecuaciones estructurales. Un total de 824 estudiantes universitarios participaron en la presente investigación. Los resultados mostraron que los datos se ajustaron de manera adecuada al modelo estructural especificado. Por otra parte, también se encontró que la soledad tuvo un efecto directo que no fue estadísticamente significativo con la ansiedad. En conclusión, estos hallazgos revelan la presencia de un efecto de mediación al mostrar que la soledad estuvo relacionada indirectamente con la ansiedad por su relación con las estrategias de regulación emocional desadaptativas. Con ello, al analizar la función mediadora de las estrategias de regulación emocional desadaptativas se aportaron, por primera vez en México, nuevos elementos que permiten conocer con mayor profundidad los efectos directos e indirectos de estos tres constructos.

Abstract The lockdown caused by the COVID-19 pandemic has impacted the lives of undergraduate students around the world. Knowing its effects on mental health and behavior will be a priority for years to come. Due to the multiple negative effects that confinement by the COVID-19 pandemic has brought, this study aims to provide new scientific evidence that will allow a better understanding of the effects of the experience of loneliness caused by this pandemic. Based on the procedural model of emotion regulation created by Gross, the objective of this research was to analyze the direct and indirect relations between the experience of loneliness, maladaptive emotion regulation strategies (rumination, avoidance, suppression, catastrophizing, and self-blame) and anxiety in a sample of Mexican undergraduate students. Based on this goal, it was hypothesized that maladaptive emotion regulation strategies would mediate the relation between loneliness and anxiety. To achieve this purpose, a total of 824 undergraduate students participated in the present research. In addition to providing their sociodemographic data, they answered the De Jong Gierveld Loneliness Scale, the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire, the Cognitive-Behavioral Avoidance Scale, the Cognitive Emotion Regulation Questionnaire, and the Beck Anxiety Inventory. In order to carry out the mediating analysis, a structural equation model was created which included three latent variables (loneliness, maladaptive emotion regulation strategies and anxiety). This model was tested using the Lavaan software. The indirect effects were analyzed using the bootstrapping method. The results showed that maladaptive emotional regulation strategies had a mediating role which was positive and significant in the relation between loneliness and anxiety. Regarding the measurement model, confirmatory factor analysis was used to test the measurement model comprising the three latent variables. Results showed that the measurement model fit the observed data appropriately. Furthermore, with the purpose of examining the validity of the measurement model, the average variance extracted and square root of the average variance extracted were calculated. Findings indicated that the average variance extracted for each construct was higher than all the squared correlations involving that construct. This confirmed the discriminant validity of all variables of study. Regarding the structural model, results showed acceptable data fit. The model explained 48 % of the variance in anxiety. The structural equation analysis revealed that loneliness was related positively with maladaptive emotion regulation strategies. Similarly, maladaptive emotion regulation strategies were associated positively with anxiety. Likewise, it was possible to confirm the main hypothesis of this study which stated that maladaptive emotion regulation strategies would mediate the influence of loneliness on anxiety among Mexican university students. Finally, it was confirmed that loneliness had a nonsignificant direct effect on anxiety. Regarding the contribution of each of the five maladaptive emotion regulation strategies, rumination had a significant function in the mediating process showing that loneliness had an impact on anxiety via the continuous thoughts that participants had about their own emotions. In turn, because of the strategy of catastrophizing, participants intensified their thoughts and emotions waiting for the worse scenario which in turn increased their levels of anxiety. Likewise, the strategies of avoidance and suppression had also a significant contribution on the mediating role of maladaptive strategies. Finally, the strategy of self-blame was a significant contribution to the mediating function. Therefore, with the purpose of controlling emotions associated with loneliness, it was possible that participants could blame themselves as a mechanism to regulate their emotions. In conclusion, these findings reveal the presence of a mediating effect by showing that loneliness was indirectly related to anxiety via its relation with maladaptive emotion regulation strategies.

Maternal Separation Modifies the Activity of Social Processing Brain Nuclei Upon Social Novelty Exposure.

Maternal separation has been shown to disrupt proper brain development and maturation, having profound consequences on the neuroendocrine systems in charge of the stress response, and has been shown to induce behavioral and cognitive abnormalities. At the behavioral level, maternal separation has been shown to increase offensive play-fighting in juvenile individuals and reduce social interest in adulthood. Since most of the studies that have evaluated the consequences of maternal separation on social behavior have focused on behavioral analysis, there is a need for a further understanding of the neuronal mechanisms underlying the changes in social behavior induced by maternal separation. Therefore, the aim of the present research was to assess the long-term effects of maternal separation on social interaction behavior and to assess the activity of several brain regions involved in the processing of social cues and reward upon social novelty exposure, using c-Fos immunohistochemistry as a marker of neuronal activity. Male Wistar rats were subjected to 4 h maternal separation during the neonatal period, 9:00 h-13:00 h from postnatal day 1 to 21, and exposed to social novelty during adulthood. After social novelty exposure, brains were fixed and coronal sections of the medial amygdala, lateral septum (LS), paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus, nucleus accumbens, and medial prefrontal cortex were obtained for c-Fos immunohistochemistry. Maternally separated rats spent less time investigating the novel peer, suggesting that maternal separation reduces social approach motivation. Furthermore, maternal separation reduced the number of c-Fos positive cells of the medial amygdala, paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus, LS, nucleus accumbens, and medial prefrontal cortex upon social novelty exposure. These findings suggest that maternal separation can reduce the plastic capacity of several brain nuclei, which constitute a physiological basis for the emergence of behavioral disorders presented later in life reported to be linked to early life adversity.

The mediating role of emotion regulation strategies in the relationship between family of origin violence and intimate partner violence.

The effects of family of origin violence and intimate partner violence have been extensively documented; however, very few studies have examined the interaction with emotion regulation strategies. Thus, the objective of this research was to analyze whether different types of emotion regulation strategies, both adaptive and maladaptive, mediate the relationship between family of origin violence and intimate partner violence in the Mexican population. A total of 838 participants (45.9% men and 54.1% women) responded to instruments addressing family of origin violence, emotion regulation strategies, and intimate partner violence. The results revealed that both structural models were significant. For women, the model showed an adequate fit X2 (11, N = 838) = 22.75, p = .288, GFI = .95, AGFI = .91, NFI = .98, CFI = .97, RMSEA = .05. Likewise, we found similar indexes for men X2 (11, N = 838) = 28.20, p = .348, GFI = .97, AGFI = .93, NFI = .97, CFI = .95, RMSEA = .04. Specifically, the direct effects of adaptive strategies on intimate partner violence were statistically significant. Meanwhile, the direct effects of family of origin violence on maladaptive emotion regulation strategies were significant, as were the direct effects of maladaptive strategies on intimate partner violence. In turn, the indirect effects of family of-origin violence were significantly related to intimate partner violence via maladaptive emotion regulation strategies. In addition, the results clearly showed that men reported higher levels of aggression against women. Finally, regarding the selection of emotion regulation strategies, while women employed more adaptive emotion regulation, men showed a more definite tendency to use maladaptive emotion regulation.

Creencias sobre la violencia y sus efectos en la prevalencia de la violencia en el noviazgo / Beliefs about violence and its effects on the prevalence of dating violence

Resumen La violencia en el noviazgo es un fenómeno multifactorial que requiere de estudios que profundicen respecto a los efectos que tienen las creencias culturales en el comportamiento tanto del agresor como de la víctima. Teniendo esto en cuenta, el objetivo de la presente investigación fue determinar la relación entre las creencias acerca de la violencia y la prevalencia de la violencia en el noviazgo. Para ello, se contó con una muestra de 420 estudiantes de dos universidades públicas mexicanas que respondieron el Inventario de creencias acerca de la violencia hacia la esposa, el Inventario de conflictos en las relaciones de noviazgo, y un cuestionario de información sociodemográfica. Los datos recolectados fueron examinados por medio de un análisis de correlación canónica, y los resultados mostraron que el modelo en general fue estadísticamente significativo (Wilks X = .654, F(20, 677.54) = 4.626,p < .05); que el tamaño del efecto del modelo general fue de .346, lo que indica que este explicó el 34.6 % de la varianza compartida por los dos conjuntos de variables; y que, específicamente en la primera función, el coeficiente de mayor magnitud fue el de la variable de justificación de la violencia (r2 s = 76.2; h 2 = 90.0), seguido por la del apoyo que se le puede brindar a la víctima (r2 s = 57.1; h2 = 94.5).

Abstract Dating violence is a multifactorial phenomenon that requires in-depth studies regarding the effects that cultural beliefs have on the behavior of both the aggressor and the victim. With this in mind, the objective of this research was to determine the relationship between beliefs about violence and the prevalence of dating violence. To this end, a sample of 420 students from two Mexican public universities answered the Inventory of Beliefs about Wife Violence, the Inventory of Conflicts in Dating Relationships, and a sociodemographic information questionnaire. The data collected were examined through a canonical correlation analysis, and the results showed that the overall model was statistically significant (Wilks X = .654, F (20, 677.54) = 4.626, p < .05); that the effect size of the overall model was .346, indicating that it explained 34. 6 % of the variance shared by the two sets of variables; and that, specifically in the first function, the coefficient of greatest magnitude was that of the variable of justification of the violence (r2 s = 76.2; h2 = 90.0), followed by that of the support that can be given to the victim (r2 s = 57.1; h2 = 94.5).

The mediating role of emotion regulation strategies in the relationship between family of origin violence and intimate partner violence

Abstract The effects of family of origin violence and intimate partner violence have been extensively documented; however, very few studies have examined the interaction with emotion regulation strategies. Thus, the objective of this research was to analyze whether different types of emotion regulation strategies, both adaptive and maladaptive, mediate the relationship between family of origin violence and intimate partner violence in the Mexican population. A total of 838 participants (45.9% men and 54.1% women) responded to instruments addressing family of origin violence, emotion regulation strategies, and intimate partner violence. The results revealed that both structural models were significant. For women, the model showed an adequate fit X 2 (11, N = 838) = 22.75, p = .288, GFI = .95, AGFI = .91, NFI = .98, CFI = .97, RMSEA = .05. Likewise, we found similar indexes for men X2 (11, N = 838) = 28.20, p = .348, GFI = .97, AGFI = .93, NFI = .97, CFI = .95, RMSEA = .04. Specifically, the direct effects of adaptive strategies on intimate partner violence were statistically significant. Meanwhile, the direct effects of family of origin violence on maladaptive emotion regulation strategies were significant, as were the direct effects of maladaptive strategies on intimate partner violence. In turn, the indirect effects of family of-origin violence were significantly related to intimate partner violence via maladaptive emotion regulation strategies. In addition, the results clearly showed that men reported higher levels of aggression against women. Finally, regarding the selection of emotion regulation strategies, while women employed more adaptive emotion regulation, men showed a more definite tendency to use maladaptive emotion regulation.

Factores de riesgo y protección asociados a la experiencia de ser madre: Un estudio comparativo entre México y los Estados Unidos

Resumen Ser madre es considerada una de las experiencias más significativas en la vida de una mujer. A pesar de su importancia en la sociedad, las mujeres mexicanas tienen que enfrentar múltiples desafíos dentro y fuera del hogar. El objetivo de este estudio fue conocer los efectos de la depresión, la violencia de pareja y los factores socioculturales presentes en México y los Estados Unidos en la experiencia de ser madre. El discurso de las participantes permitió identificar cinco temas eje: sus propias percepciones como madres, la influencia cultural, el involucramiento parental, los recursos que poseen y las barreras que enfrentan. La principal diferencia entre ambos grupos radica en el apoyo social que diversas organizaciones gubernamentales y no gubernamentales proporcionan a las madres inmigrantes en los Estados Unidos.

Abstract Being a mother is one of the most important experiences for many women. In spite of this fact, Mexican women have to face multiple factors affecting her motherhood. The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of depression, intimate partner violence as well as the sociocultural factors in Mexico and the United States in the experience of being a mother. In the narratives of these participants, we found five main themes: perceptions, cultural influence, involvement, resources, and barriers. The main difference between both groups was the social support that many governmental agencies and NGO's in the United States provide to immigrant mothers.

Aculturación, involucramiento parental y autoeficacia materna: Un estudio cualitativo con mujeres latinoamericanas en los Estados Unidos / Acculturation, parental involvement, and maternal self-efficacy: A qualitative study among Latin American women in the United States

La inmigración a los Estados Unidos conlleva para las familias latinoamericanas una serie de desafíos y adversidades así como múltiples oportunidades y beneficios. Desde esta perspectiva, el objetivo de la investigación que se informa fue analizar el impacto que tiene este proceso de adaptación en el involucramiento parental y la autoeficacia materna de las mujeres inmigrantes latinoamericanas que residen en los Estados Unidos. En este estudio participaron 14 mujeres provenientes de cinco países latinoamericanos. Los principales hallazgos muestran que las participantes tuvieron que adaptarse a las tradiciones, leyes y normas de convivencia imperantes en los Estados Unidos. Con respecto a sus expectativas, las participantes describieron el deseo de obtener un trabajo bien remunerado para poder satisfacer las necesidades básicas de su familia así como proveer a sus hijos de una buena educación. Entre las principales adversidades se encuentran el idioma, el estatus migratorio y la separación de sus familiares. En contraste, diversos beneficios tales como la educación de los hijos y la información profesional que recibieron han sido determinantes en su involucramiento parental. De la misma manera, las participantes enfatizaron la importancia de diversos recursos que han encontrado en el país de residencia entre los que se encuentran el apoyo recibido del gobierno norteamericano, los cursos en los que han participado y el apoyo social brindado por otras familias latinoamericanas. Los resultados de la investigación permiten concluir que a pesar de los muchos obstáculos a los que se enfrentan, todas las participantes mencionaron contundentemente que el haber inmigrado a los Estados Unidos ha enriquecido su experiencia como madres.

The process of immigration involves multiple challenges and barriers as well as benefits and opportunities. Each year, innumerable Latin American families immigrate to the United States of America seeking employment, medical care, or education for their children. The purpose of this qualitative research was to explore the effects of the process of acculturation in the parental involvement and maternal self-efficacy among Latin American immigrant mothers living in the United States. In order to achieve this objective, four research questions were formulated: (1) Whatis the description that Latin American immigrant women express about their own process of acculturation? (2) What are the changes these women have experienced during their acculturation process to the United States of America? (3) How Latin American immigrant mothers are involved in the academic, emotional, social, and behavioral development of their children (4) What are the perceptions that Latin American immigrant women have about their abilities and resources as mothers? In the present study, 14 women from five different Latin American countries participated in qualitative interviews. Participants' narratives were analyzed using the Consensual Qualitative Research method proposed by Hill, Thompson and Williams. After having analyzed all transcripts, five main themes were identified: (1) Adaptation, (2) Expectations, (3) Challenges, (4) Benefits, and (5) Resources. Results shows that participants had to adapt their behavior and ideas to the current American traditions, laws, and norms. Regarding participants' expectations, they talked about how one of their main expectations was to obtain an employment with which they could satisfy their basic needs and provide a good educational level to their children. Immigrants experience multiple obstacles; for instance, lack of employment and health services, legal status, changes in family functioning, separation from family, discrimination, fear of deportation, intergenerational conflicts, and language proficiency. Besides these external barriers and challenges, Latin American immigrants are affected by internal challenges with possible negative consequences, such as intimate partner violence, despondent moods, loneliness, feeling of inadequacy, gender inequality, stress, anxiety, and alcoholism. In this study, the main barriers these participants had to cope were their immigration status, separation from their families, and language proficiency. In contrast, these participants had several benefits as a result of their decision to immigrate to the United States of America such as economic resources, their children's education, and professional information they received that helped them improve their maternal skills. In consequence, they have been able to develop their maternal skills and spend quality time with their children. All participants in this research emphasized that these benefits have been determinant for their parental involvement. The last factor related to their maternal experience was the resources they have found in the United States of American. Participants talked about the support they have received from the American government, formal and informal knowledge about how to become a better mother, and the social support provided by other Latin American families. In general terms, immigrants experience better life conditions when they have a network of relatives and friends previously established in the receiving country. Consequently, they have more opportunities for a successful relocation in the new region. The importance of social support is related to the presence of these networks which provide any kind of support when necessary. In particular, due to this support, these participants have had a better adaptation to their new life. In conclusion, this research reveals that in spite of multiple challenges Latin American immigrants have to cope, all participants concluded that after immigrating to the United States of America their competence and involvement as mothers have increased.

Un análisis estructural del contexto escolar y su impacto en la generación de la violencia escolar / A structural analysis of school ocntext and its impact on bullying

Esta investigación analizó dos modelos de ecuaciones estructurales con la finalidad de medir el impacto de la relación con profesores, las condiciones físicas del plantel, el ambiente del centro, la exclusión, la organización, la convivencia entre compañeros y el comportamiento académico en la violencia escolar que experimentan los adolescentes. Participaron 185 estudiantes de nivel medio residiendo en una comunidad semirural del Estado de México. El modelo de medición mostró el impacto significativo de las variables latentes de relaciones con compañeros, el clima escolar y la influencia de los profesores en la victimización y los actos de violencia de los estudiantes contra sus compañeros. Los efectos de mayor magnitud se encontraron entre la relación con los compañeros y la experiencia de victimización, seguidos de la influencia de los profesores y el clima escolar. El modelo final indicó que la relación entre compañeros y la influencia de los profesores contribuyeron directamente con los actos de violencia cometidos por el agresor

This research examined two structural equation models with the purpose of measuring the impact of relationships with teachers, school physical conditions, school environment, exclusion, organization, relationships with peers, and academic behaviors on bullying among adolescents. A total of 185 middle school students living in a semi-rural community in the State of Mexico participated in this research. The measurement model provides significant information about the impact of latent variables (peer relationships, school climate, and influence of teachers) on victimization and bullying. Results showed that the most significant effects were between peer relationships and victimization followed by the influence of teachers and school climate. Besides, the final model showed that peer relationships and influence of teachers contributed directly with bullying