The history of polio vaccination with "Sabin's OPV" 60 years after its introduction in Italy: an unforgivable "delay".

In the spring of 1964, polio vaccination with the oral vaccine developed by Albert Sabin began in Italy. Polio was feared in the world and in Italy. Thus, between 1957 and the beginning of 1958, Italian children began receiving the "Salk vaccine", though the results were not particularly convincing. In July 1960, the international scientific community was able to verify the data from the mass testing of the Sabin vaccine. It became clear that the OPV, could prevent the virus from multiplying, thereby providing greater protection and determining the eradication of the disease. In 1960 over 70 million people in the USSR alone had already received the oral vaccine and mass vaccination in the USA would start in March 1961. However, in Italy there was no similar initiative; only later the new vaccine was accepted but was not made compulsory at the beginning. As a result of the commission's report, registration of the "Polioral" vaccine, was authorized in September 1962 but the sale of the vaccine was not authorized until November 1963. At the beginning of 1964, the production of "Polioral" started and the product was marketed and on the 1 st of March 1964, anti-polio vaccination with the "Sabin anti-polio vaccine" also began in Italy. This manuscript focuses on a crucial issue about a historical delay for public health and it points out as the preparation and diffusion of the Sabin polio vaccine demonstrates that decisions regarding health treatments, and specifically vaccination campaigns, must be based exclusively on the results of clinical studies and on independent evaluation by the scientific community. This process ensures trust in vaccines, adequate protection of public health andcitizens' well-being.

"The blinding disease". The history of trachoma in Italians between the 19th and 20th centuries: colonial or national blindness?

Trachoma is one of the oldest known causes of blindness in humans and it is caused by the intracellular Gram-negative bacterium Chlamydia trachomatis serovars A, B, Ba and C. Its transmission has historically been related to poorness, overcrowded housing and scarce hygiene. We have traced the history of trachoma in Italy in the 19th and 20th centuries, among people living in Italy, those who immigrated to America and the population in the colonies, with a focus on Libya (1912-1943). Trachoma knowledge and perception in Italy and in its colonies was ambiguous during the 19th and 20th centuries. Trachoma was responsible for a great morbidity on both sides of the Mediterranean, in Italy as well as in Libya. Trachoma is still one of the leading infectious causes of preventable blindness worldwide and it was widespread in Italy and the Italian colonies in the first half of the last century.

Herbis, non verbis, fiunt medicamenta vitae: The Italian botanist Arturo Nannizzi (1887-1961) and his contribution to the treatment of parkinsonism following encephalitis lethargica.

We describe the Italian contribution to the description and treatment of parkinsonism following encephalitis lethargica (EL): postencephalitic parkinsonism (PEP). Special attention is devoted to the description of postencephalitic symptoms by Giuseppe Panegrossi (1871-1953) and to the treatment based on Atropa belladonna introduced in Italy and extensively supported by Arturo Nannizzi (1887-1961), who was charged by the queen of Italy with conducting research into this plant and advocating its cultivation for healing purposes. This article gives us the unique opportunity to revisit the figure of this distinguished botanist, providing a summary of his biography, interests, and achievements.

The specter of cholera in Libya and North Africa: Natural disasters and anthropization threaten human health during recent years.

Introduction: According to data from the World Health Organization (WHO), in the last year cholera has re-emerged in various areas of the planet, particularly in Africa. The resurgence of this disease is closely linked to poor hygiene, which is sometimes the result of wars or environmental disasters, as in Lebanon and Syria since autumn 2022 and today in Libya. Discussion: The spread of cholera is chiefly caused by the presence of contaminated water, in environments with inadequate hygiene and sanitation. Another cause, however, is the lack of access to adequate vaccination and treatment campaigns. Method: In this short paper, the authors highlight the possibility of a resurgence of epidemic cholera in Libya, especially in light of the consequences of the devastating cyclone Daniel and the simultaneous collapse of two dams upstream of the city of Derna. They also highlight the concern that cholera and other infectious diseases may also spread in Morocco, which was hit by a severe earthquake on 8 September last. The focus of the paper is the awareness that the spread of epidemic diseases is very often linked to human actions, which may trigger or exacerbate the effects of natural disasters. Conclusions: Since these events have devastating effects both on the environment and on people and their psychophysical balance, it is evident that we need to devote greater attention to the health of the planet, to which the health and survival of the human species is strictly and inextricably linked. Indeed, disasters related to phenomena of anthropization facilitate the spread of infectious diseases, placing a heavy burden on local and global health organizations and the health of entire populations. A change of course is therefore essential, in that human actions must be aimed at limiting rather than aggravating the spread of diseases.

Measles: a new danger for Ukraine's children! The need for an effective and timely vaccination prevention campaign for an insidious disease that comes from afar.

Background: Measles, a highly contagious and dangerous disease that can cause disability or even death, remains endemic in Ukraine. This is a serious public health problem that absolutely needs to be monitored. Indeed, in the years 2017-2019, Ukraine was hit by a major measles epidemic, which caused serious problems for the population. The numerous efforts to contain the spread of measles in the country are now waning in the face of a devastating war, which has already lasted for over a year, and the COVID-19 pandemic, which has further complicated the general situation. Method: In this paper, the authors highlight a very serious public health problem and invoke the immediate implementation of an effective vaccination policy. Discussion: The percentages of measles vaccination coverage in Ukraine have decreased drastically since the beginning of the conflict (which began on February 24, 2022), and this is a source of concern regarding the possibility of a new major measles epidemic. Indeed, a measles epidemic at this time would have frightening consequences, given the conditions in which the Ukrainian population is now living. The United Nations estimates that at least 6 million people have been displaced within Ukraine as a result of the conflict, and this internal mass exodus has significantly affected vaccination coverage and adherence to vaccination schedules, despite the efforts of the Ukrainian health authorities. Conclusion: The ministry of health has prioritized vaccination programs with the help of the World Health Organization (WHO) and UNICEF, which are ensuring the free supply and delivery of vaccines through the deployment of mobile vaccination teams, even in areas where health facilities are not accessible. The main objective is to vaccinate as many people as possible in order to avoid a new epidemic, which could spread to the whole of Ukraine and also to other countries.

Poc (Pox), a term for various infectious diseases in the history of public health and epidemiology: the dreaded Smallpox, the almost unknown Alastrim and the Mpox.

Introduction: In 2022, the appearance of cases of Mpox outside the countries where the disease is endemic, and of some cases of human-to-human transmission, alerted the scientific community to a virus that is closely related to the smallpox virus. Mpox is a zoonosis and can be transmitted to humans. Following the eradication of smallpox in 1980 and the subsequent cessation of smallpox vaccination, it is emerging as the most important Orthopoxvirus in terms of public health impact. Methods: In outlining the current situation of Mpox in the world, the authors frame the virus responsible within a broader reflection on the Orthopoxvirus family, focusing particular attention on the Variola virus, which formerly caused millions of deaths. Discussion: Since Edward Jenner initiated the practice of vaccination, a progressive and careful vaccination campaign has led to the eradication not only of human smallpox but also of a minor form, called Alastrim, which was caused by the same virus. The mode of transmission of Mpox has been debated. At first, it seemed that the disease mainly, though not exclusively, affected men who had sex with other men. This conviction has been partially revised and the WHO recently changed the name of the disease from Monkeypox to Mpox, thereby alleviating the stigma involved. Conclusion: The recent human cases of Mpox have prompted greater surveillance and research into the biology of MPXV and other closely related poxviruses. Studies have focused on the natural history of the virus, its transmission, pathogenesis, host interactions and evolution, and on the development of drugs and vaccines to prevent its spread.

The ghost of polio haunts us once again. The appeal of the scientific community is clear: "Vaccinate your kids today!"

INTRODUCTION: In the summer of 2022, a vaccination campaign for the prevention of poliomyelitis was launched and "The CDC recommend that all children be vaccinated against polio, or poliomyelitis". The scientific community is on the alert for new cases of polio, which is spreading. Although polio seemed to have been almost completely eradicated throughout the world, the disease has surprisingly reappeared in some Western countries. The risk of international spread of poliovirus remains a Public Health Emergency of International Concern (PHEIC). METHOD: The authors reviewed recent polio cases in some western countries which have caused significant public health concern and they underline the meaning and weight of this issue emphasizing the importance of vaccination. DISCUSSION: In June 2022, the British authorities announced that they had detected traces of a form of polio derived from a vaccine strain in the wastewater of some London boroughs. Although no cases of disease were identified, the British government immediately announced that it was proceeding to reinstate polio vaccination for all children. A few weeks later, on July 18, 2022, the New Jersey Department of Health notified the CDCP of the detection of type-2 poliovirus in an unvaccinated young man in the New York metropolitan area. This case immediately triggered an appeal from the CDCP to get vaccinated and, above all, to vaccinate children. Low vaccination coverage means that the population is constantly at risk of further cases of paralytic poliomyelitis. CONCLUSION: The appeal to vaccinate children against polio is crucial, as prevention through vaccination is the only defense against the disease. We think that an efficient vaccination campaign can positively influence the process of eliminating the virus. At the same time, however, it demonstrates that simply lowering one's guard can quickly lead to a resurgence of polio cases. Hence, until polio is eradicated, we can be sure that contagion by the wild virus and the risk of vaccine-derived poliovirus will remain possible.

The health of mankind and the health of the planet in a historical-ethical perspective: an inseparable relationship and a single destiny.

Recent years have seen increasingly severe natural disasters, the consequences of which have been catastrophic. Clearly, our global environment is undergoing major changes. The climate is becoming deranged and pollution on a global scale afflicts air, water, and land. We are faced with an unprecedented shortage of cultivable land and fresh water for drinking, irrigation, and livestock farming, while our marine systems are breaking down. These environmental changes have a very high anthropogenic component; they are induced by human activities that are potentially dangerous for both the environment and human life. Moreover, not only do they have an enormous impact on the environments in which we live and on our way of life, they also have harmful effects on our health. Indeed, we must understand that our body - as Hippocrates explained long ago - is a system that constantly interacts with the surrounding environment.

Mpox: "the stigma is as dangerous as the virus". Historical, social, ethical issues and future forthcoming.

Objectives: The authors aim to show the possibility of stigma that hits affected Mpox patients because of the statements of society involving their sexual sphere. Introduction: 23 July 2022, the Director-General of the WHO, Thedos Ghebreyesus, issued an international public health alert regarding cases of Mpox (formerly known as Monkeypox). Although Mpox has been present in an endemic form for years in some Central African countries, the spread of the disease outside Africa has aroused considerable alarm in populations already sorely afflicted by the COVID-19 pandemic. Aside from the data, what is striking is that Mpox, like other infectious diseases, seems to have become a problem only when it began to cross the borders of Africa. Some may justify this attitude simply by ascribing it to the fear of an epidemic outside the areas where the virus is endemic. However, in such cases, and especially after the COVID-19 experience, other factors are also involved: lack of information and, even more so, the human capacity to utilise diseases to reinforce arguments against the tendencies, inclinations, orientations and behaviours of some social groups. Such information, albeit basically correct, is nevertheless incomplete. Moreover, it tends to prompt a view of this disease that may give rise to highly dangerous and embarrassing situations, engendering the risk of repeating the error that was made about AIDS. Mpox is the latest in a series of epidemics that have struck humanity in the space of very few years. Material and methods: Setting and partecipants: people and social groups who, due to sexual orientations and behaviours, are considered to be at risk of being infected with Mpox. Main outcomes measures: - outcomes directly related to mental health of Mpox patients: anxiety, fear and depression, emotional difficulties, feelings of loneliness and isolation; - well-being outcomes of people with Mpox; - risk of not being able to reduce the epidemic among those groups don't feel as though they belong to LGBTQ and therefore do not implement any kind of prevention. Results: Limit the contagion from Mpox through specific health and communication campaigns. Remove any stigma related to Mpox disease. Conclusions: In the face of this disease, it is absolutely essential that we do not needlessly isolate groups of people by feeding stigma, prejudice and discrimination, which can have devastating effects not only on individuals but also on society as a whole. As the full inclusion of persons of LGBTQ community is probably still a long way off, we must surely wonder when we will be ready enough to achieve the important objective of equality for all.

IL SEGNALAMENTO DEL DELINQUENTE BY SALVATORE OTTOLENGHI: THE STUDY OF DERMATOGLYPHICS IN ANTHROPOMETRIC CABINETS / IL SEGNALAMENTO DEL DELINQUENTEDI SALVATORE OTTOLENGHI: LO STUDIO DEI DERMATOGLIFI NEI GABINETTI ANTROPOMETRICI

The dermatoglyphics are signs of the human variety, as they are absolutely different from one human being to another. For this reason, and for their characteristics of uniqueness, classification, and inalterability, the papillary ridges on the fingertips represent elements of a sure differentiation between one person and another. Fingerprints are, therefore, very helpful in identifying a human being. Salvatore Ottolenghi was the first to utilize the fingerprinting system to identify individuals, and he introduced this system in his "Cartellino di riconoscimento (identification card)" in 1902. He was sure about the scientific validity of this method, which he considered to be free from potential personal interpretation. According to hi definition, "fingerprints, by their nature, form special drawings from birth; these will not change throughout life and will be absolutely different from one human being to another". This fingerprint identification method was immediately refined by Giovanni Gasti, whom Salvatore Ottolenghi had chosen as his personal assistant at the Scuola di Polizia Scientifica (School of Forensic Science). Gasti, adapting the classification method of Francis Galton and Edward Henry, developed the "Sistema Gasti (Gasti System)", which was in use throughout the 1900s.

The history of vaccinology and hygiene through Achille Sclavo and the cultural patrimony conserved in the archives and museums: the key role of medical museology.

Over the centuries, the oldest universities have amassed an extraordinary patrimony of material and immaterial cultural assets, which have been created or acquired for the purposes of research or teaching. Now on display in museums, they testify to the evolution of knowledge and its diversification in various disciplines. In order to safeguard, conserve and study this precious heritage, we need to implement a cultural project that activates that "process of awareness" on which cataloging is based. This is a "reasoned awareness" that enables an object to be framed within a system of scientific knowledge and historical-critical relationships, which are essential to its conservation and, consequently, to its public exploitation. Through this process, we can uncover the history of an object, its characteristics and its uniqueness. This is the case, for example, of an optical microscope on display in the Museo di Strumentaria medica (Medical Equipment Museum), which is part of the Museum System of the University of Siena.

The fight against poliomyelitis through the history: past, present and hopes for the future. Albert Sabin's missing Nobel and his "gift to all the world's children".

Polio, or poliomyelitis, is a disabling and life-threatening disease caused by three poliovirus (PV) serotypes. The virus spreads from person to person and can infect a person's spinal cord, causing paralysis. In 1988, when the WHO registered 350,000 cases of poliomyelitis in the world and 70,000 which occurred in Africa alone, global poliomyelitis eradication was proposed by the World Health Organization to its member States. On 25 August 2020, while the world was waging war against the Coronavirus pandemic, a historic milestone was reached: Africa was officially declared polio-free. It is an important result obtained thanks to an intensive large-scale vaccination campaign. The road was far from smooth, nevertheless, according to the WHO, a great effort needs to be made in order to facilitate access to vaccination and to promote its implementation in those countries where coverage is low and vaccine hesitancy is high because the risk of the spread of poliomyelitis is still relevant. Eradication of the virus in Africa provides us with an excellent opportunity to commemorate the many scientists who contributed to achieving this epoch-making goal: first of all, Jonas Salk, who developed a killed-virus vaccine in 1952, and, especially, Albert Sabin, who in 1961 launched programs of mass immunisation with his oral vaccine against poliomyelitis.

The nineteenth-century experience of the kingdom of the two Sicilies on mandatory vaccination: An Italian phenomenon?

The current health emergency caused by COVID-19 disease shows several similarities with well-known epidemics of the past. The knowledge of their management and overcoming could give us useful tools to face the present COVID-19 pandemic. The Bourbon king Ferdinand I planned the first free large-scale mass vaccination programme conducted in Italy and one of the first in Europe to counteract smallpox. The vaccination campaign was characterized by many difficulties and the efforts made by the Southern Kingdoms governors were enormous. For example, the "ante litteram communication campaign", aimed at convincing the so-called "hesitant" people and at confuting the arguments of vaccination opponents, was impressive. In 1821, the compulsory vaccination significantly reduced smallpox infections and death rates. Subsequently, several experiences followed this initiative, not without doubts and debates. Smallpox was finally eradicated worldwide only on the 9th December 1979. Despite to other countries, the "mandatory vaccination" is a topic often debated by Italian scientific and social communities.

Achille Sclavo (1861-1930) and His Innovative Contributions to Italian Preventive Medicine and Healthcare Policy.

Achille Sclavo was a scientist with a multifaceted personality; throughout his life, he steadfastly maintained his commitment to research and teaching, while also gaining precious experience as an educator, politician and entrepreneur. He carried forward these various activities with the aim of bringing relief to a country smitten by epidemic diseases, of spreading the gospel of hygiene, and of creating and training medical and healthcare personnel that would be able to tackle the difficult problem of public health in Italy at the beginning of the twentieth century. In this regard, Achille Sclavo can undoubtedly be considered a precursor of modern public health and preventive medicine.

Fifty years after the eradication of Malaria in Italy. The long pathway toward this great goal and the current health risks of imported malaria.

Fifty years ago, Italy was declared a malaria-free country by the World Health Organization (WHO). In remembering this important anniversary, the authors of this paper describe the long journey that led to this goal. In the century following the unification of Italy, malaria was one of the main public health problems. At the end of the 19th century, malaria cases amounted to 2 million, with 15,000-20,000 deaths per year. This manuscript examines the state of public and social health in Italy from the end of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century, with particular regard to the government's measures for the prevention, prophylaxis and treatment of malaria. The authors describe the main findings of Italian malariologists during the period under review, from the identification of Plasmodium as a malaria pathogen and the recognition of the Anopheles mosquito as its vector. They also make some considerations regarding the current situation and the importation of malaria by travelers and migrants from countries where the disease is still endemic.

The avid eaters of lives. New and old infectious diseases in Italy at the time of World War I: a historical overview of military medicine and public health.

World War I hit Italy from different perspectives. The one here described under an historical point of view regards the health of military and civil population, with a special focus on infective diseases. The 20th Century was the fuse of degeneration and eugenetics theories; which grew in the melée of war and technological innovation. Indeed, war is interestingly depicted as an entity capable of emphasizing the differences between those who wore a uniform and those who did not. As a matter of fact, some infections spared the civilian population while others felt with greater vengeance on this subgroup. Moreover, the incidence of different feared diseases was brought back to the rates of the late 19th Century. Thanks to a statistician, Giorgio Mortara (1885-1967) the impact of infective diseases in Wolrd War I on Italian demography is well established. Moreover, different military and civilian sources contribute to enrich the picture of the consequences of war. In conclusion World War I could see considered as a litmus paper. The litmus paper of successes and failures of italian public health management to face new medical challenges exacerbated by the crisis.