Measuring political radicalism and extremism in surveys: Three new scales.

This paper introduces three new scales to measure left- and right-wing radical as well as general extremist attitudes that can be applied across Western European countries. We therefore propose a thorough conceptualization of extremist attitudes that consists of two dimensions: general extremism, by which we understand attitudes that oppose the constitutional democratic state, and another dimension that differentiates between right- and left-wing radicalism by which we understand people who take far-reaching but often one-sided positions on political issues (e.g., on nationalism or anti-imperialism) by advocating fundamental socio-political change. Based on data from Germany, Great Britain, and the Netherlands (n = 6,201) we created short indices for general extremism and left- and right-wing radicalism. We check for convergence validity by assessing the psychometric properties of the extracted indices, i.e. their internal coherence and the degree to which a scale is able to distinguish strongly extremist and non-extremist individuals. Finally, we correlate the scales with various constructs that are likely related to extremist attitudes in order to assure external or construct validity. The results indicate that the three scales are highly valid and applicable across three Western European countries. Overall, we find that about two to four percent of citizens in each country hold left-wing or right-wing extremist attitudes.

Determinants of soft drink consumption among children and adolescents in developed countries - a systematic review.

OBJECTIVES: Soft drinks are a major component of daily caloric and sugar intake. This is especially true for children and adolescents. The WHO as well as many other institutions currently recommend to increase research on the determinants of soft drink consumption. We submit a current systematic review on this topic. METHODS: In accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) statement, we included all quantitative observational studies that comprise samples from developed countries in the age range 0-18 years and are listed in PubMed, Sociological Abstracts and the Social Sciences Citation Index. Publication period was not limited. The second and the last author screened all 10,392 hits independently with both reviewers being blinded. Interrater reliability (agreement and Cohen's kappa) was 97%/0.73 for the selection of titles, 91%/0.83 for abstracts and 91%/0.80 for full texts. RESULTS: Results of 43 included studies, published between 2001 and 2017, show that children and adolescents consuming soft drinks tend to be older, male and of lower social status. Important contextual factors promoting consumption include constant availability at home, at schools or elsewhere as well as restrictions by parents and rules concerning drinks during meals or generally at home. The association between media consumption and soft drink consumption is particularly striking. Other factors in the food environment (choice of food and alternative drinks at home, having meals together, motivation, knowledge about nutrition and healthy eating) are of minor importance. CONCLUSIONS: When introducing interventions parents should play a major role because they serve as physical and social gatekeepers for this early risk factor of juvenile obesity.

Optimistically biased perception of one's own skin cancer risk: Representative nationwide findings.

BACKGROUND: Previous research has shown that individuals tend to have unrealistic comparative optimism (UCO) for different diseases and health outcomes. Our aim was to analyze UCO in relation to skin cancer for the first time in a representative nationwide sample. The results will be important for planning future prevention. METHODS: The National Cancer Aid Monitoring on Sunbed Use (NCAM, wave 3) is a representative nationwide German survey (n = 3,000, 14-45 years). We assessed UCO in relation to skin cancer and analyzed its association with sociodemographics, tanning and health-related risk behaviors, skin cancer risk, and skin cancer risk awareness. RESULTS: Four out of ten (43.3 %) respondents believed themselves to have a lower risk of developing skin cancer than other people of the same age and sex. Younger individuals were more likely to be optimistic. Individuals with an increased risk of skin cancer were more likely to perceive this higher risk. CONCLUSION: While it is realistic for those who actually have a higher risk of skin cancer to perceive it that way, the findings for the general population (and specifically for younger individuals) are concerning. It seems important to explain to people that their perception of their own risk of skin cancer is unrealistic, as this may affect their individual screening and prevention behavior.