Ambient Particulate Air Pollution and Daily Mortality in 652 Cities.

BACKGROUND: The systematic evaluation of the results of time-series studies of air pollution is challenged by differences in model specification and publication bias. METHODS: We evaluated the associations of inhalable particulate matter (PM) with an aerodynamic diameter of 10 µm or less (PM10) and fine PM with an aerodynamic diameter of 2.5 µm or less (PM2.5) with daily all-cause, cardiovascular, and respiratory mortality across multiple countries or regions. Daily data on mortality and air pollution were collected from 652 cities in 24 countries or regions. We used overdispersed generalized additive models with random-effects meta-analysis to investigate the associations. Two-pollutant models were fitted to test the robustness of the associations. Concentration-response curves from each city were pooled to allow global estimates to be derived. RESULTS: On average, an increase of 10 µg per cubic meter in the 2-day moving average of PM10 concentration, which represents the average over the current and previous day, was associated with increases of 0.44% (95% confidence interval [CI], 0.39 to 0.50) in daily all-cause mortality, 0.36% (95% CI, 0.30 to 0.43) in daily cardiovascular mortality, and 0.47% (95% CI, 0.35 to 0.58) in daily respiratory mortality. The corresponding increases in daily mortality for the same change in PM2.5 concentration were 0.68% (95% CI, 0.59 to 0.77), 0.55% (95% CI, 0.45 to 0.66), and 0.74% (95% CI, 0.53 to 0.95). These associations remained significant after adjustment for gaseous pollutants. Associations were stronger in locations with lower annual mean PM concentrations and higher annual mean temperatures. The pooled concentration-response curves showed a consistent increase in daily mortality with increasing PM concentration, with steeper slopes at lower PM concentrations. CONCLUSIONS: Our data show independent associations between short-term exposure to PM10 and PM2.5 and daily all-cause, cardiovascular, and respiratory mortality in more than 600 cities across the globe. These data reinforce the evidence of a link between mortality and PM concentration established in regional and local studies. (Funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China and others.).

Calidad de vida y ambiente en comunidades próximas a la actividad de minería industrial en Boyacá, Colombia / Quality of life and environment in communities close to industrial mining activity in Boyacá, Colombia

RESUMEN Objetivos Comparar la percepción sobre calidad de vida y situación ambiental, en municipios próximos y distantes de la actividad minero industrial del Departamento de Boyacá. Método Estudio epidemiológico transversal. Los municipios próximos al área de influencia fueron agrupados en zonas identificadas como 1 y 2, y los municipios distantes como zona 0. Se realizó un muestreo aleatorio simple, multietápico, por conglomerados. Se determinó una muestra de 1 117 hogares y la unidad de análisis fue la familia. Para medir la calidad de vida y percepción de salud se utilizó el instrumento WHOQOL-BREF. Se calcularon distribuciones de frecuencia, diferencias entre variables y comparaciones entre variables cualitativas y cuantitativas. Se realizaron análisis univariados y bivariados. Resultados La calificación de la calidad de vida y satisfacción con la salud es mayor en la zona 0. Las medias calculadas para los cuatro dominios del cuestionario, por municipios, muestra que Ramiriquí presenta los rangos intercuartílicos más elevados. La percepción de calidad de vida y salud disminuye a medida que aumenta la edad y se presentan resultados menos satisfactorios entre las mujeres. En las zonas 1 y 2, el medio ambiente del municipio se calificó como "muy malo" y la situación ambiental de su municipio sin ninguna mejora en los últimos cinco años Conclusión Las comunidades próximas a actividades minero-industriales, reportan una peor percepción de salud, mayor preocupación ante el riesgo a la exposición y no consideran que dicha actividad aporte mayores beneficios para su calidad de vida.(AU)

ABSTRACT Objective To compare the life quality perception and environmental situation, in nearby and distant towns from the mining industry of the Boyacá Department of Colombia Method Cross-sectional study. The towns near of influence area were grouped into zones 1 and 2, and distant towns as zone 0. Conglomerates carried out a simple, multistage, random sampling. A sample of 1,117 households was determined and the unit of analysis was the family. To measure the quality of life and health perception, the WHOQOL-BREF instrument was used. Frequency distributions and comparisons between qualitative and quantitative variables were calculated. Univariate and bivariate analyzes were performed. Results The life quality perception and satisfaction with health was greater in zone 0. The means calculated for the four domains of the questionnaire, by towns, shows that Ramiriquí has the highest interquartile ranges. The life quality perception decreases in women and with increasing age. In zones 1 & 2, the environment was described as "very bad" and without any improvement at the last five years. Conclusion Communities close to mining-industrial activities report a worse perception of health, greater concern about the risk of exposure and do not consider that mining industry provides greater benefits for their quality of life.(AU)

[Quality of life and environment in communities close to industrial mining activity in Boyacá, Colombia]. / Calidad de vida y ambiente en comunidades próximas a la actividad de minería industrial en Boyacá, Colombia.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the life quality perception and environmental situation, in nearby and distant towns from the mining industry of the Boyacá Department of Colombia. METHOD: Cross-sectional study. The towns near of influence area were grouped into zones 1 and 2, and distant towns as zone 0. Conglomerates carried out a simple, multistage, random sampling. A sample of 1,117 households was determined and the unit of analysis was the family. To measure the quality of life and health perception, the WHOQOL-BREF instrument was used. Frequency distributions and comparisons between qualitative and quantitative variables were calculated. Univariate and bivariate analyzes were performed. RESULTS: The life quality perception and satisfaction with health was greater in zone 0. The means calculated for the four domains of the questionnaire, by towns, shows that Ramiriquí has the highest interquartile ranges. The life quality perception decreases in women and with increasing age. In zones 1 & 2, the environment was described as "very bad" and without any improvement at the last five years. CONCLUSION: Communities close to mining-industrial activities report a worse perception of health, greater concern about the risk of exposure and do not consider that mining industry provides greater benefits for their quality of life.

OBJETIVOS: Comparar la percepción sobre calidad de vida y situación ambiental, en municipios próximos y distantes de la actividad minero industrial del Departamento de Boyacá. MÉTODO: Estudio epidemiológico transversal. Los municipios próximos al área de influencia fueron agrupados en zonas identificadas como 1 y 2, y los municipios distantes como zona 0. Se realizó un muestreo aleatorio simple, multietápico, por conglomerados. Se determinó una muestra de 1 117 hogares y la unidad de análisis fue la familia. Para medir la calidad de vida y percepción de salud se utilizó el instrumento WHOQOL-BREF. Se calcularon distribuciones de frecuencia, diferencias entre variables y comparaciones entre variables cualitativas y cuantitativas. Se realizaron análisis univariados y bivariados. RESULTADOS: La calificación de la calidad de vida y satisfacción con la salud es mayor en la zona 0. Las medias calculadas para los cuatro dominios del cuestionario, por municipios, muestra que Ramiriquí presenta los rangos intercuartílicos más elevados. La percepción de calidad de vida y salud disminuye a medida que aumenta la edad y se presentan resultados menos satisfactorios entre las mujeres. En las zonas 1 y 2, el medio ambiente del municipio se calificó como "muy malo" y la situación ambiental de su municipio sin ninguna mejora en los últimos cinco años. CONCLUSIÓN: Las comunidades próximas a actividades minero-industriales, reportan una peor percepción de salud, mayor preocupación ante el riesgo a la exposición y no consideran que dicha actividad aporte mayores beneficios para su calidad de vida.

Menores de 16 años con concentraciones de mercurio por exposición ambiental en Bogotá / Under 16-Year Old Children Affected by Mercury Concentrations Due to Environmental Exposure in Bogotá / Menores de 16 Anos com Concentrações de Mercúrio por Exposição Ambiental em Bogotá

Introducción: El mercurio es un metal pesado; se encuentra en el ambiente de forma natural y antrópica (minería de metales; industrias de fundiciones, de combustión de carbón y de cloro-álcali); produce afectaciones a la salud de los niños, especialmente en el sistema nervioso central (retardo mental y neurodesarrollo, parálisis cerebral, ataxia, convulsiones, ceguera, sordera). Metodología: Es un estudio descriptivo, de análisis secundario, con base en el estudio de "Prevalencia de mercurio y plomo en población general de Bogotá 2012/2013". Se tomaron muestras en sangre, cabello y orina, interpretadas por el Laboratorio de Salud Pública de la Secretaría Distrital de Salud, con la metodología 7473 de la Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). A todos los participantes se les realizó valoración médica, con un instrumento adaptado del Global Mercury Project; se seleccionó el grupo menor de 16 años, con el objeto de realizar un análisis sociodemográfico y clínico por concentraciones de mercurio. Resultados: La proporción de mercurio en cualquier biomarcador fue del 81,2 %; se encontró un caso con niveles superiores a los valores máximos permitidos para mercurio en cabello, que presentó problemas en desarrollo, crecimiento y aprendizaje. Discusión: Se observa que se está presentando una exposición a edades tempranas, por lo cual es importante determinar las fuentes que puede generar la contaminación ambiental e implementar un sistema de vigilancia. Las alteraciones en el crecimiento, desarrollo, aprendizaje y comportamiento evidenciadas en el caso con niveles elevados no son exclusivas de la presencia de mercurio; es posible que existan otras entidades nosológicas que puedan generar estas afecciones a la salud.

Introduction: Mercury is a heavy metal released naturally and anthropically in the environment (metal mining, foundry industries, coal combustion, and chlorine alkali); it also affects the health of people, especially some children impacted upon their central nervous system (mental retardation and neurodevelopment, cerebral palsy, ataxia, convulsions, blindness, deafness). Methodology: We developed a descriptive study, and a secondary analysis based on the study "Mercury-and-lead prevalence in overall population, Bogota 2012/2013". Blood, hair and urine samples taken by the Public Health Laboratory of the District Health Secretariat using the EPA's 7473 methodology. All participants medically valuated with an instrument adapted of the Global Mercury Project; a group under 16 years of age selected for a socio-demographic and clinical analysis of mercury concentrations. Results: The mercury ratio for any biomarker was 81.2 %; we found a case with levels higher than the maximum values allowed for mercury upon hair, which generated problems of development, growth and learning. Discussion: Early age exposure is observed, therefore it is important to establish the relevant sources of environmental pollution and implementing a monitoring system; the alterations of growth, development, learning and behavior ­evidenced with higher levels­ are not the only ones produced by mercury, since there may be other particular substances causing such affections.

Introdução: O mercúrio é um metal pesado que se acha num ambiente de forma natural e antrópica (mineração de metais, indústrias de fundições, de combustão de carvão e de cloro álcali); produz afetações na saúde das crianças especialmente no sistema nervoso central (retardo mental e desenvolvimento neural, paralise cerebral, ataxia, convulsões, cegueira, surdez). Metodologia: Trata-se de um estudo descritivo, de análise secundário, baseado no estudo de "Prevalência de mercúrio e chumbo na população geral de Bogotá 2012/2013". Foram tomadas mostras no sangue, cabelos e urina, interpretadas pelo Laboratório de Saúde Pública da Secretaria Distrital de Saúde usando a metodologia de 7374 da EPA; em todos os participantes foi realizada valoração médica com um instrumento adaptado do Global Mercury Project; selecionou-se um grupo menor de 16 anos com o objeto de realizar uma análise sócio demográfica e clinica por concentrações de mercúrio. Resultados: A proporção de mercúrio em qualquer biomarcador foi de 81.2 %; achou-se um caso com níveis superiores aos valores máximos permitidos para mercúrio nos cabelos o que apresentou problemas no desenvolvimento, crescimento e aprendizagem. Discussão: Observa-se que está se apresentando uma exposição em crianças de menor idade, pelo qual é importante determinar as fontes que podem gerar a contaminação no ambiente e implementar um sistema de vigilância; as alterações no crescimento, desenvolvimento, aprendizagem e comportamento evidenciadas, no caso de níveis elevados, não são exclusivas da presencia de mercúrio, podem existir outras entidades nosológicas que puderam gerar essas afeiçoes na saúde.

Prevalencia de mercurio y plomo en población general de Bogotá 2012/2013 / Mercury and lead prevalence in a sample of people living in Bogotá, 2012-2013

Objetivos Establecer la prevalencia de mercurio y plomo en población general de Bogotá, posibles efectos en salud y relación con zonas de exposición ambiental. Métodos Estudio transversal, muestra de 401 individuos de población general de Bogotá, distribuida aleatoria y proporcionalmente según localidad y zonas de exposición ambiental de alto, medio y bajo riesgo. Se realizó valoración médica y cuantificación de plomo (sangre) y mercurio (sangre, cabello, orina). Se realizó análisis descriptivo preliminar. Resultados Edad de los participantes: 3-91 años (media 46), ocupación más frecuente ama de casa (45,1 %, n=181); promedios de concentraciones: mercurio en cabello: 1,00 µg/g, sangre: 3,13 µg/L, y orina: 0,29 µg/L; plomo en sangre: 8,62 µg/dL. Individuos con concentraciones superiores a los valores de referencia internacionales: 54 (13,5 %) para mercurio (OMS); 10 (2,5 %) para plomo (CDC). Los hallazgos clínicos son inespecíficos, las zonas de exposición no parecen relacionarse con las concentraciones encontradas. Discusión Un porcentaje importante de individuos presentan concentraciones elevadas de los metales estudiados, lo que resalta la necesidad de identificar y controlar las fuentes ambientales de mercurio y plomo que están afectando a la población general de Bogotá, con posibles consecuencias en su salud.(AU)

Objectives Establishing mercury and lead prevalence in a sample of people living in Bogotá, potential effects on their health and the relationship with areas of environmental exposure. Methods This was a cross-sectional study involving a randomly and proportionally distributed sample of 401 people living in Bogotá, according to locality and their high, medium and low risk environmental exposure. A medical assessment was made and lead (in blood) and mercury levels (blood, hair, urine) quantified. A preliminary descriptive analysis was made. Results The participants were aged 3-91 years-old (mean 46), the most frequently occurring occupation was that of housewife (45.1%, n=181). Mean mercury concentration in hair was 1µg/g, 3.13 µg/L in blood and 0.29 µg/L in urine; lead in blood was found to be 8.62 µg/dL. Fifty-four people (13.5%) had higher concentrations than international reference values for mercury (WHO) and 10 (2.5%) for lead (CDC). Clinical findings were non-specific; exposure areas did not seem to relate to the concentrations found. Discussion A significant percentage of the study population had high mercury and/or lead levels and such high prevalence highlights the need for identifying and controlling sources of exposure to mercury and lead which could have adverse consequences regarding the health of Bogota’s general population.(AU)

[Mercury and lead prevalence in a sample of people living in Bogotá, 2012-2013]. / Prevalencia de mercurio y plomo en población general de Bogotá 2012/2013.

OBJECTIVES: Establishing mercury and lead prevalence in a sample of people living in Bogotá, potential effects on their health and the relationship with areas of environmental exposure. METHODS: This was a cross-sectional study involving a randomly and proportionally distributed sample of 401 people living in Bogotá, according to locality and their high, medium and low risk environmental exposure. A medical assessment was made and lead (in blood) and mercury levels (blood, hair, urine) quantified. A preliminary descriptive analysis was made. RESULTS: The participants were aged 3-91 years-old (mean 46), the most frequently occurring occupation was that of housewife (45.1%, n=181). Mean mercury concentration in hair was 1µg/g, 3.13 µg/L in blood and 0.29 µg/L in urine; lead in blood was found to be 8.62 µg/dL. Fifty-four people (13.5%) had higher concentrations than international reference values for mercury (WHO) and 10 (2.5%) for lead (CDC). Clinical findings were non-specific; exposure areas did not seem to relate to the concentrations found. DISCUSSION: A significant percentage of the study population had high mercury and/or lead levels and such high prevalence highlights the need for identifying and controlling sources of exposure to mercury and lead which could have adverse consequences regarding the health of Bogotá'’s general population.

Contaminación del aire y enfermedad respiratoria en menores de cinco años de Bogotá, 2007 / Air pollution and respiratory illness in children aged less than 5 years-old in Bogotá, 2007

Objetivos Determinar la relación entre contaminación del aire extra e intramuros por material particulado MP10 con síntomas respiratorios en niños menores de 5 años en tres localidades del Distrito Capital. Métodos Estudio de cohortes. 315 niños y niñas de jardines ubicados en zona de mayor exposición a material particulado MP10, y 304 de jardines en zona de menor exposición. Se siguieron las cohortes por 19 semanas, teniendo en cuenta síntomas respiratorios. Se midió material particulado intramuros y extramuros en los jardines. Se determinaron prevalencias y asociación entre variables. Resultados Hubo una diferencia de promedios de MP intramuros entre mayor y menor exposición de 85.6 μg/m³vs. 61.8 μg/m³ (p<0,05). 74.3 % de los niños presentaron sibilancias en el último año, con diferencia entre mayor y menor exposición de 79,6 % vs 69,0 % (p<0,05). Sibilancias y expectoración estuvieron asociados a mayor exposición a MP10 (RR 1,39 y 1,30). Factores asociados a síntomas respiratorios: tabaquismo pasivo, el antecedente de bajo peso al nacer, el antecedente de sibilancias, la cercanía del jardín o vivienda a menos de 100 metros de chimeneas, vías de alto flujo vehicular, vías en mal estado y colecho. Discusión Un niño menor de 5 años expuesto a MP10 tiene 1,70 veces más riesgo de presentar ausentismo escolar por enfermedad respiratoria aguda, una disminución del MP10 reduciría en un 41,1 % este ausentismo escolar.

Objectives Determining the relationship between indoor and outdoor air pollution caused by particulate matter PM10 and respiratory symptoms in children aged younger than 5 years-old in three locations in Bogota. Methods This was a cohort study, involving 315 children in kindergartens located in the area of greatest exposure to PM10, and 304 in kindergartens located in an area of less exposure. The cohort was followed-up for 19 weeks considering respiratory symptoms. Particulate matter was intramurally and extramurally measured in the kindergartens. Prevalence and association between variables were determined. Results There was a difference regarding average intramural PM between higher and lower exposure (85.6 ug/m³cf 61.8 g/m³; p<0.05); 74.3 % of the children had suffered wheezing during the last year, difference between greater and lesser exposure being 79.6 % cf 69.0 % (p<0.05). Wheezing and coughing were associated with greater exposure to PM10 (RR 1.39 and 1.30). Factors associated with respiratory symptoms concerned passive smoking, having a history of low birth weight, a history of wheezing, a child's kindergarten or home being within 100 meters of (industrial) chimneys, high traffic flow routes, roads in disrepair and bed-sharing. Discussion A child aged less than 5 years-old exposed to PM10 had a 1.7 times higher risk of truancy due to acute respiratory illness; a decrease in PM10 reduced such truancy by 41.1 %.

El sentido de las enfermedades por parásitos intestinales en poblaciones americanas, identificando dilemas bioéticos / The sense of intestinal parasitic diseases in american populations, identifying bioethical dilemmas / O sentido de parasitoses intestinais em populações americanas, identificando dilemas bioéticos

Objetivo: Identificar sentidos que pueblos del continente americano le asignan a las parasitosis intestinales y plantear posibles conflictos o dilemas en las tomas de decisiones en diferentes actividades de salud producto del encuentro de valores distintos, campo de acción de la bioética. Metodología: Revisión bibliográfica de artículos sobre parasitosis intestinales que cumplieran los criterios de inclusión establecidos y suministraran aportes para la comprensión hermenéutica de las parasitosis intestinales y permitieran identificar dilemas bioéticos para actividades en salud resultantes del contacto entre las visiones émica y ética (de la biomedicina). Resultados: La construcción social de las parasitosis intestinales influye en su percepción de causalidad, nocividad y como problema de salud, lo cual afecta las acciones que la gente emprenda ante ellas. Se advierte que tales construcciones sociales pueden no coincidir con la perspectiva biomédica. Se observó que en algunas poblaciones la construcción social del cuerpo se relaciona con la percepción de efectos benéficos de los parásitos. La gente reconoce factores de riesgo pero esto no necesariamente conduce a comportamientos preventivos. Algunos estudios reconocen que la educación ha sido de tipo informativo, sin participación comunitaria, lo cual impide que la gente se identifique con ella y se sienta motivada a transformar su realidad. Se identificaron diversos dilemas bioéticos producto del contacto entre visiones de las poblaciones, y la biomedicina. Conclusiones: La aproximación émica permite entender la lógica de la población sobre las parasitosis intestinales e identificar disyuntivas bioéticas. Aunque la gente reconozca los riesgos de infección, la falta de comprensión de la perspectiva émica de los parasitismos por parte del personal de salud y las deficientes condiciones de vida permiten que no se produzcan transformaciones que incidan en la disminución de sus prevalencias. Eso mismo afectará el éxito de programas de atención, prevención, promoción y educación en la salud. Pero el análisis de la visión émica, aunque es fundamental, no lo es todo. En el problema de las parasitosis intestinales intervienen también condiciones infraestructurales, que conllevan situaciones conflictivas para los profesionales de la salud, como agentes externos a las comunidades. Se pueden hacer campañas de educación que efectivamente mejoren la prevención, pero realidades socio-económicas (por ejemplo, pobreza, participación comunitaria, empoderamiento,) y políticas (compromisos y acciones de líderes y gobiernos a diferentes niveles) pueden incidir para que lo que se aprendió no surta el efecto deseado o que se modifiquen las condiciones estructurales que generan los problemas. En este punto se generan problemas morales que deberían ser analizados por la bioética.

Objective: Identifying meanings that American populations assign to parasitic intestinal diseases and raising potential conflicts or dilemmas in making-decision in various health activities result of the contact between traditional and biomedical perspectives. Methodology: Bibliographic review on intestinal parasites that met the inclusion criteria and supply insights for hermeneutics understanding of intestinal parasites and allow identify bioethical dilemmas for health activities resulting from contact between the emic and ethical visions (of biomedicine). Results: The social construction of parasitic intestinal diseases influences their perception of causality, harmfulness and as a health problem. This affects actions that people undertake to these diseases. People's perception of the diseases can be different to the health professionals. Sometimes ethnoanatomy is related to beneficial effects from the parasites. People recognize risk factors but this does not necessarily lead to preventive behaviors. Some researches recognize informative education without community participation is not successful because people do not feel motivated to transform your reality. There were established various bioethical dilemmas arising from contact between emic and biomedical perspectives. Conclusions: Emic approach allows us to understand people's logic about intestinal parasites. Although people recognize infection risks from an etic perspective, health officers' lack of understanding of emic perspective of parasitic intestinal diseases, and the poor living conditions cannot produce changes that affect the reduction on prevalence rates. Those facts will affect the success of care, prevention, promotion and health education programs. The emic perspective is not definitely. There are a lot of infrastructural conditions that developed different conflict situations for the work of the health professionals. They can provide elements for prevention and promotion strategies and programs, but depending on the socio-economical (poverty, community participation and empowerment) and political (i.e. leadership, formal commitments) conditions can be used or not. The last conclusion is that many ethical and moral problems must be analyzed by bioethics.

Objetivo: Identificar sentidos que povos das Américas atribuem às parasitoses intestinais e formular potenciais conflitos ou dilemas nas tomada de decisões em várias atividades de saúde produto do encontro de valores diferentes, o escopo da bioética. Metodologia: pesquisa de artigos sobre parasitoses intestinais que atenderam aos critérios de inclusão e forneceram contribuições para a compreensão hermenêutica das parasitoses intestinais e permitiram identificar dilemas bioéticos para atividades de saúde decorrentes do contato entre as visões émicas e éticas (da biomedicina). Resultados: A construção social das parasitoses intestinais influencia na sua percepção de causalidade, nocividade e como um problema de saúde, o que afeta as ações que as pessoas empreendem diante deles. Você é avisado de que tais construções sociais podem não corresponder à perspectiva biomédica. Observouse que em algumas populações, a construção social do corpo está relacionada com a percepção de efeitos benéficos dos parasitas. As pessoas reconhecem fatores de risco, mas isso não conduz necessariamente a comportamentos preventivos. Alguns estudos reconhecem que a educação tem sido do tipo informativo, sem a participação da comunidade, o que impede que as pessoas se identifiquem com ela e se sinta motivada para mudar sua realidade. Identificaramse vários dilemas bioéticos produto do contato entre as visões das populações e da biomedicina. Conclusões: A abordagem émica permite entender a lógica das pessoas sobre os parasitas intestinais, e identificar os dilemas bioéticos. Embora as pessoas reconheçam os riscos de infecção, a falta de compreensão da perspectiva émica dos parasitismos por parte do pessoal de saúde e as condições de vida precárias permitem que não haja transformações que afetem na diminuição das suas prevalências. Isso mesmo afetará o sucesso de programas de atenção, prevenção, promoção e educação em saúde. Mas, a análise da visão émica, embora seja essencial, não é tudo. No problema das parasitoses intestinais também interferem condições de infraestrutura, que implicam situações conflitivas para os profissionais de saúde, e para agentes de fora para as comunidades. Você pode fazer campanhas de educação que efetivamente melhorem a prevenção, mas realidades socioeconômicas (por exemplo, pobreza, participação da comunidade, empoderamento) e políticas (compromissos e ações de líderes e governos em diferentes níveis) podem influenciar para que o que é se aprendeu não dei o efeito pretendido ou que se modifiquem as condições estruturais que criam os problemas. Neste momento são gerados questões morais que deveriam ser analisados pela bioética.

Enfermedad y síntomas respiratorios en niños de cinco municipios carboníferos del Cesar, Colombia / PM10 exposure-related respiratory symptoms and disease in children living in and near five coal-mining areas in the Cesar department of Colombia

Objetivos Establecer la prevalencia de síntomas respiratorios y enfermedad respiratoria en niños menores de 12 años de municipios de influencia de la zona carbonífera del departamento del Cesar y posibles factores asociados. Métodos Estudio transversal en 1 627 niños menores de 10 años habitantes de municipios carboneros del Cesar expuestos a diferentes niveles de MP10 en los años 2008-2010, en quienes se midieron enfermedades y síntomas respiratorios relacionados con exposición a PM10, buscando asociación con diferentes zonas de exposición al material particulado. Resultados Niños de corregimientos próximos a depósitos mineros y de corregimientos con tráfico tuvieron mayor proporción de casos probables de asma; mientras que los del corregimiento con tráfico se ausentaron más días por enfermedad respiratoria aguda; se encontró mayor frecuencia de síntomas respiratorios en niños expuestos al humo de cigarrillo o de leña intramurales, niños de viviendas con paredes de bareque o adobe, tenencia de animales, presencia de humedad en las viviendas, vehículos de carga a menos de 100 m de la vivienda; vivir en zonas con tráfico aumentó el riesgo de presentar síntomas respiratorios, enfermedad respiratoria aguda y ausentismo escolar. Discusión Todos los efectos estudiados estuvieron asociados a condiciones intramurales, factores del entorno cercano o individuales, coincidiendo con lo encontrado en estudios similares de salud y contaminación del aire. Se sugiere la creación de estrategias y políticas regionales para el control y monitoreo de la calidad del aire y la salud de los habitantes del departamento del Cesar.

Objectives Establishing the prevalence of respiratory symptoms and disease in children aged less than 12 years-old living within the Cesar department's coal-mining area and possible associated factors. Methods This was a cross-sectional study of 1,627 children aged less than 10 years-old living in and near coal-mining areas in the Cesar department who were exposed to different levels of PM10 from 2008-2010; their PM10 exposure-related symptoms and respiratory diseases were measured, seeking an association with living in areas exposed to particulate material. Results Children living in areas close to coal-mining activity which also had high traffic volume had a higher rate of probable cases of asthma; those living in areas with traffic (not no coal-mining) were absent from school for more days due to acute respiratory disease. Respiratory symptoms were most commonly found in children experiencing living conditions which exposed them to cigarette or firewood smoke indoors, living in houses made with wattle and daub or adobe walls, living where animals were kept, living in damp housing and diesel-powered dump trucks operating within 100 m or less of their housing. Living in areas having high traffic volume increased the risk of respiratory symptoms, acute respiratory disease and being absent from school. Discussion All the effects studied were associated with intramural conditions, individual factors or those associated with the immediate surroundings thereby coinciding with results found in similar studies regarding air pollution and health. It is thus suggested that regional strategies and policy be created for controlling and monitoring the air quality and health of people living in the Cesar department.

[PM10 exposure-related respiratory symptoms and disease in children living in and near five coal-mining areas in the Cesar department of Colombia]. / Enfermedad y síntomas respiratorios en niños de cinco municipios carboníferos del Cesar, Colombia.

OBJECTIVES: Establishing the prevalence of respiratory symptoms and disease in children aged less than 12 years-old living within the Cesar department's coal-mining area and possible associated factors. METHODS: This was a cross-sectional study of 1,627 children aged less than 10 years-old living in and near coal-mining areas in the Cesar department who were exposed to different levels of PM10 from 2008-2010; their PM10 exposure-related symptoms and respiratory diseases were measured, seeking an association with living in areas exposed to particulate material. RESULTS: Children living in areas close to coal-mining activity which also had high traffic volume had a higher rate of probable cases of asthma; those living in areas with traffic (not no coal-mining) were absent from school for more days due to acute respiratory disease. Respiratory symptoms were most commonly found in children experiencing living conditions which exposed them to cigarette or firewood smoke indoors, living in houses made with wattle and daub or adobe walls, living where animals were kept, living in damp housing and diesel-powered dump trucks operating within 100 m or less of their housing. Living in areas having high traffic volume increased the risk of respiratory symptoms, acute respiratory disease and being absent from school. DISCUSSION: All the effects studied were associated with intramural conditions, individual factors or those associated with the immediate surroundings thereby coinciding with results found in similar studies regarding air pollution and health. It is thus suggested that regional strategies and policy be created for controlling and monitoring the air quality and health of people living in the Cesar department.

[Air pollution and respiratory illness in children aged less than 5 years-old in Bogotá, 2007]. / Contaminación del aire y enfermedad respiratoria en menores de cinco años de Bogotá, 2007.

OBJECTIVES: Determining the relationship between indoor and outdoor air pollution caused by particulate matter PM10 and respiratory symptoms in children aged younger than 5 years-old in three locations in Bogota. METHODS: This was a cohort study, involving 315 children in kindergartens located in the area of greatest exposure to PM10, and 304 in kindergartens located in an area of less exposure. The cohort was followed-up for 19 weeks considering respiratory symptoms. Particulate matter was intramurally and extramurally measured in the kindergartens. Prevalence and association between variables were determined. RESULTS: There was a difference regarding average intramural PM between higher and lower exposure (85.6 ug/m³cf 61.8 g/m³; p<0.05); 74.3 % of the children had suffered wheezing during the last year, difference between greater and lesser exposure being 79.6 % cf 69.0 % (p<0.05). Wheezing and coughing were associated with greater exposure to PM10 (RR 1.39 and 1.30). Factors associated with respiratory symptoms concerned passive smoking, having a history of low birth weight, a history of wheezing, a child's kindergarten or home being within 100 meters of (industrial) chimneys, high traffic flow routes, roads in disrepair and bed-sharing. DISCUSSION: A child aged less than 5 years-old exposed to PM10 had a 1.7 times higher risk of truancy due to acute respiratory illness; a decrease in PM10 reduced such truancy by 41.1 %.