Management of traumatic popliteal vascular injuries in a level I trauma center: A 6-year experience.

INTRODUCTION: Popliteal vascular trauma remains a challenging entity, and carries the greatest risk of limb loss among the lower extremity vascular injuries. Operative management of traumatic popliteal vascular injuries continues to evolve. We aim at describing our experience with such complex injuries, with associated patterns of injury, diagnostic and therapeutic challenges, and outcomes. METHODS: From January 2006 to September 2011, 191 adult trauma patients presented to an urban level I trauma center in Miami, Florida with traumatic lower extremity vascular injuries. Variables collected included age, gender, mechanism of injury, and clinical status at presentation. Surgical data included vessel injury, technical aspects of repair, associated complications and outcomes. RESULTS: Forty-seven (24.6%) patients were diagnosed with traumatic popliteal vascular injuries. Mean age was 38.1 ± 16.1 years, and the majority of patients were males (43 patients, 91.4%). There were 21 (44.7%) penetrating injuries, and 26 (55.3%) blunt injuries. Vascular repair with saphenous venous interposition graft and PTFE (polytetrafluoroethylene) grafting were performed in 36 (70.7%) and 2 (3.9%) patients, respectively. Blunt popliteal injuries were significantly more associated with major tissue loss, and length of hospital and intensive care unit (ICU) stays. The risk for amputation is increased with longer ICU stays and the use of PTFE grafting for vascular repair. The overall mortality rate in this series was 8.5%. CONCLUSIONS: Blunt popliteal vascular injuries are associated with increased morbidity compared to penetrating trauma. Early restoration of blood perfusion, frequent use of interposition grafts with autogenous saphenous vein, and liberal use of fasciotomies play important role to achieve acceptable outcomes.

Management of femoral vessel injuries: a 6-year single-center experience.

Femoral vessel injuries are a familiar injury treated in busy urban trauma centers. The majority of peripheral vascular injuries to the lower extremity occur most commonly to the femoral vessels. The increasing incidence of civilian violence provides an opportunity to perform a comprehensive review and management of these injuries.

Management of lower extremity vascular injuries in pediatric trauma patients: a single Level I trauma center experience.

BACKGROUND: Traumatic vascular injuries of the lower extremity in the pediatric population are rare but can result in significant morbidity. We aimed at describing our experience with such complex injuries, with associated patterns of injury, diagnostic and therapeutic challenges, and outcomes. METHODS: From January 2006 to December 2011, 2,844 pediatric trauma patients presented at the Ryder Trauma Center, an urban Level I trauma center in Miami, Florida. Among them, 18 patients (0.6%) were evaluated for lower extremity traumatic vascular injuries. Variables collected included age, sex, mechanism of injury, and clinical status at presentation. Surgical data included vessel injury, technical aspects of repair, associated complications, and outcomes. RESULTS: Mean (SD) age was ± 14.7 (2.6) years (range, 6-17 years), with 17 males (94.4%). Of the 18 traumatic pediatric patients, 32 vascular injuries were identified. All arterial injuries underwent definitive operative repair. Primary repair was performed in two patients (11.1%), six (33.3%) required saphenous vein interposition grafting as initial procedure, and eight (44.4%) underwent polytetrafluoroethylene grafting. Ligation was performed in major venous injuries and deep profunda branches. The overall survival in this series was 94.4%. CONCLUSION: Peripheral vascular injuries of the lower extremity in the pediatric population can result in acceptable outcomes if managed early and aggressively. Surgical principles of vascular surgery are similar to those applied to an adult. We recommend that these injuries should be managed in a tertiary specialized center with a multidisciplinary team of trauma surgeons, and pediatricians, which can potentially decrease morbidity and mortality. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Epidemiologic study, level III.

Change in hematocrit during trauma assessment predicts bleeding even with ongoing fluid resuscitation.

This study tests the hypothesis that a change in hematocrit (ΔHct) during initial trauma work-up is as reliable as conventional vital signs for detecting bleeding, even with ongoing fluid resuscitation. Consecutive trauma patients admitted to a Level I trauma center receiving two Hct measurements during initial resuscitation between January 2010 and January 2011 were stratified based on estimated blood loss greater than 250 mL (bleeding) or nonbleeding. Sensitivity, specificity, and receiver operating characteristic curves were calculated for systolic blood pressure (SBP), heart rate, base deficit, and ΔHct. In 168 (72%) nonbleeding versus 64 (28%) bleeding patients, age and gender were similar. Arrival SBP was highly specific (90 to 99%) but poorly sensitive (13 to 31%) for detecting bleeding. Combinations of vital signs increased specificity, albeit at the expense of sensitivity. For bleeding versus nonbleeding patients (all receiving resuscitation fluid), ΔHct was 9.0 versus 1.8, ΔHct/liter was 4.8 versus 1.5, and ΔHct/liter/hour was 2.8 vs 0.6 (all P < 0.001). Only SBP (area under the curve [AUC] 0.608 to 0.695) and ΔHct (AUC 0.731 to 0.921) were significant for identifying bleeding with ΔHct 6 or greater being the best predictor (sensitivity 89%, specificity 95%, AUC 0.921). During ongoing fluid resuscitation of a trauma victim, ΔHct is the single most reliable indicator of continuing blood loss. A ΔHct 6 or greater during initial resuscitation is highly suspicious for ongoing blood loss, but even lesser changes have predictive value. Altogether, these results support the idea that fluid shifts are rapid after hemorrhage and Hct can be valuable during initial trauma assessment.

Repeat head computed tomography after minimal brain injury identifies the need for craniotomy in the absence of neurologic change.

BACKGROUND: In this era of cost containment, the value of routine repeat head computed tomography (CT) in patients with mild TBI (mTBI) and no interval neurologic change has been challenged. The purpose of this study was to test the hypothesis that routine repeat head CT provides critical information after mTBI even with no neurologic change. METHODS: From January 1996 to May 2010, records from all patients admitted to our Level I trauma center with an arrival Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) score of 13 to 15 and at least one head CT were retrospectively reviewed. RESULTS: In 360 patients with mTBI and positive initial head CT finding, the most common abnormalities were subarachnoid hemorrhage (64%), intraparenchymal hemorrhage (57%), and subdural hemorrhage (40%). Scans were repeated in 8 ± 6 hours; 11% were recalled, 59% remained stable, but 30% showed injury progression. Those patients with worsening repeat head CT finding had higher Injury Severity Score (ISS), were more likely to be intubated and require craniotomy, had longer stay, and had higher mortality (all p < 0.001). On multiple logistic regression, altered GCS score (odds ratio, 3.1-4.0), ISS (odds ratio, 1.1), and presence of mass effect (odds ratio, 2.0) were independently associated with worsening repeat head CT finding. In patients receiving a neurosurgical operative intervention, 32% to 59% had no clinical decline before the worsening repeat CT finding. CONCLUSION: After mTBI, worsening of repeat head CT finding is seen in a third of patients and is associated with worse outcomes. A substantial fraction of patients who require operative intervention will have no clinical changes in the first 8 hours, supporting the value of repeat head CT within this time frame. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Care management study, level III.

Operating room or angiography suite for hemodynamically unstable pelvic fractures?

BACKGROUND: Few patients require angiography and therapeutic embolization for bleeding pelvic fractures, but they are risk for significant morbidity and mortality. In hemodynamically unstable trauma patients with pelvic fractures, the decision to proceed to the operating room (OR) to address intraabdominal bleeding, or angiography to address pelvic bleeding (ANGIO), is rarely straightforward. This study tested the hypothesis that outcomes are similar regardless if the sequence was OR-ANGIO or ANGIO-OR. METHODS: All pelvic fractures between 1999 and 2011 were retrospectively reviewed and stratified by initial management with ANGIO or OR. RESULTS: Of 2,922 patients with pelvic fractures, only 183 (6%) required angiography for suspected bleeding. For OR-ANGIO (n = 49) versus ANGIO (n = 134), injury severity score was similar (40 ± 15 vs. 35 ± 16), but systolic blood pressure (97 ± 28 vs. 108 ± 32 mmHg, p = 0.038) and base excess were both lower (-9 ± 5 vs. -5 ± 5 mEq/L, p < 0.001). During initial resuscitation and in the first 24 hours, crystalloid, blood product usage and total fluid requirements were all increased 50% to 100% (all p < 0.001). Despite these differences, lengths of stay (32 ± 32 vs. 26 ± 28 days) and mortality (33% vs. 31%) were similar. The same trends in fluid requirements remained in the subset of patients with unstable pelvic fractures, with an increased mortality (67% vs. 20%, p = 0.011) in those requiring ANGIO-OR versus OR-ANGIO. CONCLUSION: These data support current management algorithms. In hemodynamically unstable trauma patients with pelvic fractures, those who proceeded immediately to the OR to address intraabdominal bleeding tended to be sicker but had outcomes that were the same or better compared with those who received angiography to address pelvic bleeding. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: III, retrospective review.

Initial hematocrit in trauma: a paradigm shift?

BACKGROUND: After severe trauma and hemorrhage, it is generally assumed that the rate of fluid shift from the interstitial space into the vasculature is relatively slow and that initial hematocrit (Hct) does not reflect estimated blood loss. This study challenges that idea and tests the hypothesis that initial Hct correlates with signs of shock and hemorrhage in trauma patients. METHODS: Data were retrospectively reviewed from 198 trauma patients requiring emergency surgery at a Level I center from July 2009 to April 2010. Patients were divided into quartiles based on the initial Hct measured within 10 minutes of arrival. Categorical data were compared using χ(2) test or Fisher's exact test, as appropriate. Normally distributed data were compared using Student's t test or analysis of variance. Nonparametric data were compared with a Mann-Whitney U test or Kruskal-Wallis test. Post hoc analysis was conducted using the Bonferroni correction or paired Mann-Whitney U tests. RESULTS: The study population was 83% male, aged 35 ± 1 years (mean ± SE), with 71% penetrating injuries. Lower initial Hct correlated with hypotension (p < 0.001), acidosis (p = 0.003), altered mental status (p < 0.001), Injury Severity Score (p < 0.001), Revised Trauma Score (p < 0.001), estimated blood loss (p < 0.001), and usage of packed red blood cells (p < 0.001), fresh frozen plasma (p = 0.003), crystalloid (p = 0.021), and vasopressors (p < 0.001). CONCLUSION: Admission Hct correlates with signs of shock and hemorrhage in trauma patients requiring emergency surgery because fluid shifts rapidly from the interstitial space into the vasculature. This finding of a rapid Hct change contradicts the current teaching in most trauma textbooks.

Pediatric facial trauma: a review of guidelines for assessment, evaluation, and management in the emergency department.

Approximately 22 million children in the United States sustain traumatic injuries every year, the etiologies of which vary with age as well as social and environmental factors. If not managed properly, these injuries can have a significant impact on future growth and development. Evaluation of facial injuries presents a unique diagnostic challenge in this population, as differences from adult anatomy and physiology can result in vastly different injury profiles. The increased ratio of the cranial mass relative to the body leaves younger patients more vulnerable to craniofacial trauma. It is essential that the treating physician be aware of these variations to properly assess and treat this susceptible and fragile patient population and ensure optimal outcomes. This article reviews the proper emergency department assessment and treatment of facial fractures in the pediatric population as well as any associated injuries, with particular emphasis on initial patient stabilization, radiological evaluation, and therapeutic options.

Clinical applications of heart rate variability in the triage and assessment of traumatically injured patients.

Heart rate variability (HRV) is a method of physiologic assessment which uses fluctuations in the RR intervals to evaluate modulation of the heart rate by the autonomic nervous system (ANS). Decreased variability has been studied as a marker of increased pathology and a predictor of morbidity and mortality in multiple medical disciplines. HRV is potentially useful in trauma as a tool for prehospital triage, initial patient assessment, and continuous monitoring of critically injured patients. However, several technical limitations and a lack of standardized values have inhibited its clinical implementation in trauma. The purpose of this paper is to describe the three analytical methods (time domain, frequency domain, and entropy) and specific clinical populations that have been evaluated in trauma patients and to identify key issues regarding HRV that must be explored if it is to be widely adopted for the assessment of trauma patients.