Efficacy of metal ions and isothiazolones in inhibiting Enterobacter cloacae BF-17 biofilm formation.

Enterobacter cloacae is a nosocomial pathogen. The E. cloacae strain BF-17, with a high capacity for biofilm formation, was screened and identified from industrially contaminated samples, carried out in our laboratory. To develop an efficient strategy to deal with biofilms, we investigated the effects of metal ions, including Na⁺, K⁺, Ca⁺, Mg⁺, Cu⁺, and Mn⁺, and 3 isothiazolones, on elimination of E. cloacae BF-17 biofilm formation by using a 0.1% crystal violet staining method. The results revealed that higher concentrations of Na⁺ or K⁺ significantly inhibited E. cloacae BF-17 biofilm development. Meanwhile, Ca²âº and Mn²âº stimulated biofilm formation at low concentration but exhibited a negative effect at high concentration. Moreover, biofilm formation decreased with increasing concentration of Mg²âº and Cu²âº. The isothiazolones Kathon (14%), 1,2-benzisothiazolin-3-one (11%), and 2-methyl-4-isothiazolin-3-one (10%) stimulated initial biofilm formation but not planktonic growth at low concentrations and displayed inhibitory effects on both biofilm formation and planktonic growth at higher concentrations. Unfortunately, the 3 isothiazolones exerted negligible effects on preformed or fully mature biofilms. Our findings suggest that Na⁺, K⁺, Mg²âº, and isothiazolones could be used to prevent and eliminate E. cloacae BF-17 biofilms.

Involvement of outer membrane proteins and peroxide-sensor genes in Burkholderia cepacia resistance to isothiazolone.

Isothiazolones are used as preservatives in various modern industrial products. Although microorganisms that exhibit resistance towards these biocides have been identified, the underlying resistance mechanisms are still unclear. Therefore, we investigated the resistance properties of the following Burkholderia cepacia strains to Kathon (a representative of isothiazolones): a wild-type (WT) strain; a laboratory resistance strain (BC-IR) induced from WT; and an isolated strain (BC-327) screened from industrial contamination samples. The bacterial cell structure was disrupted by 50 µg ml⁻¹ Kathon treatment. BC-IR and BC-327 did not display resistance in the presence of 1 ml L⁻¹ Tween 80, 1 ml L⁻¹ Triton X-100, 0.1 % sodium dodecyl sulfate or 1 mmol L⁻¹ EDTA-2Na. Additionally, BC-IR and BC-327 exhibited lower relative conductivity from 10 to 180 min. The types as well as the levels of outer-membrane proteins (OMPs) were altered among WT, BC-IR and BC-327. Finally, the two Kathon-resistance strains BC-IR and BC-327 presented higher resistance capacity to H2O2. We measured the levels of peroxide-sensor genes and observed that the transcriptional activator oxyR, superoxide dismutase sod1, sod2, catalase cat1 and cat3 were all up-regulated under oxidative conditions for all strains. Taken together, OMPs and peroxide-sensor genes in B. cepacia contributed to isothiazolone resistance; However, the laboratory strain BC-IR exhibited a different resistance mechanism and properties compared to the isolated strain BC-327.

Effects of nutritional and environmental conditions on planktonic growth and biofilm formation of Citrobacter werkmanii BF-6.

Citrobacter sp. is a cause of significant opportunistic nosocomial infection and is frequently found in human and animal feces, soil, and sewage water, and even in industrial waste or putrefaction. Biofilm formation is an important virulence trait of Citrobacter sp. pathogens but the process and characteristics of this formation are unclear. Therefore, we employed in vitro assays to study the nutritional and environmental parameters that might influence biofilm formation of C. werkmanii BF-6 using 96-well microtiter plates. In addition, we detected the relative transcript levels of biofilm formation genes by RT-PCR. Our results indicated that the capacity of C. werkmanii BF-6 to form biofilms was affected by culture temperature, media, time, pH, and the osmotic agents glucose, sucrose, NaCl, and KCl. Confocal laser scanning microscopy results illustrated that the structure of biofilms and extracellular polysaccharide was influenced by 100 mM NaCl or 100 mM KCl. In addition, nine biofilm formation genes (bsmA, bssR, bssS, csgD, csgE, csgF, mrkA, mrkB, and mrkE) were found to contribute to planktonic and biofilm growth. Our data suggest that biofilm formation by C. werkmanii BF-6 is affected by nutritional and environmental factors, which could pave the way to the prevention and elimination of biofilm formation using proper strategies.

Antifungal effects of citronella oil against Aspergillus niger ATCC 16404.

Essential oils are aromatic oily liquids obtained from some aromatic plant materials. Certain essential oils such as citronella oil contain antifungal activity, but the antifungal effect is still unknown. In this study, we explored the antifungal effect of citronella oil with Aspergillus niger ATCC 16404. The antifungal activity of citronella oil on conidia of A. niger was determined by poisoned food technique, broth dilution method, and disc volatility method. Experimental results indicated that the citronella oil has strong antifungal activity: 0.125 (v/v) and 0.25 % (v/v) citronella oil inhibited the growth of 5 × 105 spore/ml conidia separately for 7 and 28 days while 0.5 % (v/v) citronella oil could completely kill the conidia of 5 × 105 spore/ml. Moreover, the fungicidal kinetic curves revealed that more than 90 % conidia (initial concentration is 5 × 105 spore/ml) were killed in all the treatments with 0.125 to 2 % citronella oil after 24 h. Furthermore, with increase of citronella oil concentration and treatment time, the antifungal activity was increased correspondingly. The 0.5 % (v/v) concentration of citronella oil was a threshold to kill the conidia thoroughly. The surviving conidia treated with 0.5 to 2 % citronella oil decreased by an order of magnitude every day, and no fungus survived after 10 days. With light microscope, scanning electron microscope, and transmission electron microscope, we found that citronella oil could lead to irreversible alteration of the hyphae and conidia. Based on our observation, we hypothesized that the citronella oil destroyed the cell wall of the A. niger hyphae, passed through the cell membrane, penetrated into the cytoplasm, and acted on the main organelles. Subsequently, the hyphae was collapsed and squashed due to large cytoplasm loss, and the organelles were severely destroyed. Similarly, citronella oil could lead to the rupture of hard cell wall and then act on the sporoplasm to kill the conidia. Nevertheless, the citronella oil provides a potential of being a safe and environmentally friendly fungicide in the future.

Synthesis and characterization of waterborne polyurethane/Cu(II)-loaded hydroxyapatite nanocomposites with antibacterial activity.

A novel kind of environmentally friendly nanocomposites, waterborne polyurethane (WBPU)/Cu(II)-loaded hydroxyapatite (CuHAp), with improved physical properties and antibacterial activity have been prepared via in-situ polymerization from functionalized CuHAp nanoparticles (CuHAp NPs). The interaction of the CuHAp NPs with isophorone diisocyanate to form the functionalized CuHAp NPs containing isocyanate groups (CuHAp-g-NCO) has been studied. The microstructure and particle distribution of the nanocomposites were observed using scanning electron microscopy. The improvements of mechanical properties, thermal stability and water resistance of the nanocomposites have also been evaluated. Finally, the antibacterial activity was tested against G(-) Escherichia coli and G(+) Staphylococcus aureus by the zone of inhibition test and the direct contact test. The long-lasting antibacterial activity was studied by measuring antibacterial ability of the nanocomposites after being immersed in water. The results indicate that WBPU incorporation with CuHAp NPs shows strong antibacterial activity upon contact, and long-lasting antibacterial property.

Antibacterial effect of silver nanoparticles on Staphylococcus aureus.

The antibacterial activity and mechanism of silver nanoparticles (Ag-NPs) on Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 6538P were investigated in this study. The experiment results showed the minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) of Ag-NPs to S. aureus was 20 µg/ml. Moreover, when bacteria cells were exposed to 50 µg/ml Ag-NPs for 6 h, the cell DNA was condensed to a tension state and could have lost their replicating abilities. When S. aureus cells were exposed to 50 µg/ml Ag-NPs for 12 h, the cell wall was breakdown, resulting in the release of the cellular contents into the surrounding environments, and finally became collapsed. And Ag-NPs could reduce the enzymatic activity of respiratory chain dehydrogenase. Furthermore, the proteomic analysis showed that the expression abundance of some proteins was changed in the treated bacterial cell with Ag-NPs, formate acetyltransferase increased 5.3-fold in expression abundance, aerobic glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase decreased 6.5-fold, ABC transporter ATP-binding protein decreased 6.2-fold, and recombinase A protein decreased 4.9-fold.