Advance decision-making in mental health - Suggestions for legal reform in England and Wales.

This paper argues that existing English and Welsh mental health legislation (The Mental Health Act 1983 (MHA)) should be changed to make provision for advance decision-making (ADM) within statute and makes detailed recommendations as to what should constitute this statutory provision. The recommendations seek to enable a culture change in relation to written statements made with capacity such that they are developed within mental health services and involve joint working on mental health requests as well as potential refusals. In formulating our recommendations, we consider the historical background of ADM, similarities and differences between physical and mental health, a taxonomy of ADM, the evidence base for mental health ADM, the ethics of ADM, the necessity for statutory ADM and the possibility of capacity based 'fusion' law on ADM. It is argued that the introduction of mental health ADM into the MHA will provide clarity within what has become a confusing area and will enable and promote the development and realisation of ADM as a form of self-determination. The paper originated as a report commissioned by, and submitted to, the UK Government's 2018 Independent Review of the Mental Health Act 1983.

Diversity or disarray? A systematic review of decision-making capacity for treatment and research in schizophrenia and other non-affective psychoses.

BACKGROUND: Valid consent for treatment or research participation requires that an individual has decision-making capacity (DMC), which is the ability to make a specific decision. There is evidence that the psychopathology of schizophrenia can compromise DMC. The objective of this review was to examine the presence or absence of DMC in schizophrenia and the socio-demographic/psychopathological factors associated. METHODS: We searched three databases Embase, Ovid MEDLINE(R), and PsycINFO for studies reporting data on the proportion of DMC for treatment and research (DMC-T and DMC-R), and/or socio-demographic/psychopathological associations with ability to make such decisions, in people with schizophrenia and related illnesses. RESULTS: A total of 40 studies were identified. While high levels of heterogeneity limited direct comparison, meta-analysis of inpatient data showed that DMC-T was present in 48% of people. Insight was strongly associated with DMC-T. Neurocognitive deficits were strongly associated with lack of DMC-R and to a lesser extent DMC-T. With the exception of years of education, there was no evidence for an association with socio-demographic factors. CONCLUSIONS: Insight and neurocognitive deficits are most closely associated with DMC in schizophrenia. The lack of an association with socio-demographic factors dispels common misperceptions regarding DMC and characteristics such as age. Although our results reveal a wide spectrum of DMC-T and DMC-R in schizophrenia, this could be partly due to the complexity of the DMC construct and the heterogeneity of existing studies. To facilitate systematic review research, there is a need for improvement within research study design and increased consistency of concepts and tools.

Regaining mental capacity for treatment decisions following psychiatric admission: a clinico-ethical study.

BACKGROUND: Mental capacity is an emerging ethical legal concept in psychiatric settings but its relation to clinical parameters remains uncertain. We sought to investigate the associations of regaining capacity to make treatment decisions following approximately 1 month of in-patient psychiatric treatment. METHOD: We followed up 115 consecutive patients admitted to a psychiatric hospital who were judged to lack capacity to make treatment decisions at the point of hospitalization. We were primarily interested in whether the diagnosis of schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder associated with reduced chances of regaining capacity compared with other diagnoses and whether affective symptoms on admission associated with increased chances of regaining capacity. In addition, we examined how change in insight was associated with regaining capacity in schizophrenia, bipolar affective disorder (BPAD)-mania, and depression. RESULTS: We found evidence that the category of 'schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder' associated with not regaining capacity at 1 month compared with BPAD-mania [odds ratio (OR) 3.62, 95% confidence intervals (CI) 1.13-11.6] and depression (OR 5.35, 95% CI 1.47-9.55) and that affective symptoms on admission associated with regaining capacity (OR 1.23, 95% CI 1.02-1.48). In addition, using an interaction model, we found some evidence that gain in insight may not be a good indicator of regaining capacity in patients with depression compared with patients with schizophrenia and BPAD-mania. CONCLUSIONS: We suggest that clinico-ethical studies using mental capacity provide a way of assessing the validity of nosological and other clinical concepts in psychiatry.

A study of psychiatrists' concepts of mental illness.

BACKGROUND: There are multiple models of mental illness that inform professional and lay understanding. Few studies have formally investigated psychiatrists' attitudes. We aimed to measure how a group of trainee psychiatrists understand familiar mental illnesses in terms of propositions drawn from different models. METHOD: We used a questionnaire study of a sample of trainees from South London and Maudsley National Health Service (NHS) Foundation Trust designed to assess attitudes across eight models of mental illness (e.g. biological, psychodynamic) and four psychiatric disorders. Methods for analysing repeated measures and a principal components analysis (PCA) were used. RESULTS: No one model was endorsed by all respondents. Model endorsement varied with disorder. Attitudes to schizophrenia were expressed with the greatest conviction across models. Overall, the 'biological' model was the most strongly endorsed. The first three components of the PCA (interpreted as dimensions around which psychiatrists, as a group, understand mental illness) accounted for 56% of the variance. Each main component was classified in terms of its distinctive combination of statements from different models: PC1 33% biological versus non-biological; PC2 12% 'eclectic' (combining biological, behavioural, cognitive and spiritual models); and PC3 10% psychodynamic versus sociological. CONCLUSIONS: Trainee psychiatrists are most committed to the biological model for schizophrenia, but in general are not exclusively committed to any one model. As a group, they organize their attitudes towards mental illness in terms of a biological/non-biological contrast, an 'eclectic' view and a psychodynamic/sociological contrast. Better understanding of how professional group membership influences attitudes may facilitate better multidisciplinary working.

Mental capacity, diagnosis and insight in psychiatric in-patients: a cross-sectional study.

BACKGROUND: Mental capacity is now a core part of UK mental health law and clinicians will increasingly be expected to assess it. Because it is a legal concept there is a need to clarify associations with variables that clinicians are more familiar with, especially insight. METHOD: In this cross-sectional study we recruited consecutive psychiatric admissions to the Maudsley Hospital, London. We carried out structured assessments of decision making using the MacArthur Competence Assessment Tool for Treatment (MacCAT-T), resulting in a clinical judgement about capacity status. We analysed associations with a range of sociodemographic and clinical variables, including insight score on the Expanded Schedule for the Assessment of Insight (SAI-E). The same variables were compared in an analysis stratified according to diagnostic group: psychotic disorders/bipolar affective disorder (BPAD)/non-psychotic disorders. RESULTS: Psychotic disorders and manic episodes of BPAD are most strongly associated with incapacity. In such patients, insight is the best discriminator of capacity status. In patients with non-psychotic disorders, insight is less strongly associated with capacity; in this group depressed mood discriminates capacity status whereas it does not in psychotic disorders. Cognitive performance does not discriminate capacity status in patients with psychotic disorders. CONCLUSIONS: Mental capacity has complex relationships with psychopathological variables, and these relationships are different according to diagnostic group. Insight is the best discriminator of capacity status in psychotic disorders and BPAD but not in non-psychotic disorders.

Electrophysiological characterization of laminar synaptic inputs to the olfactory tubercle of the rat studied in vitro: modulation of glutamatergic transmission by cholinergic agents is pathway-specific.

We have exploited the complementary arrangement of afferents in a coronal slice (300-400 microm) of the rat olfactory tubercle (OT) maintained in vitro to investigate transmission in two separate synaptic pathways. We recorded extracellular responses within the OT dense cell layer in slices and stimulated either the outermost layer to activate primary olfactory fibres or deeper to activate secondary input. Superficial stimulation produced a synaptic potential with superimposed population spike. This interpretation was based on blockade by calcium removal from the bathing medium and the use of the glutamate antagonist DNQX (10 microM); the spike was found to be selectively suppressed by tetrodotoxin applied near the cells. The spike, but not the synaptic wave, was depressed by 12 mM Ca2+ and enhanced by 1 mM Ba2+ in the bathing medium. Deep stimulation to activate association and intrinsic fibres elicited a nerve volley followed by a later response, also blocked by Ca2+ removal or 10 microM DNQX. It was unaffected by high Ca2+ or Ba2+, hence resulting from synaptic and not action current flow. Removal of Mg2+ from the bathing medium revealed an NMDA component of synaptic transmission at both loci that was selectively blocked by D-AP-5. The deep synaptic response, only, was depressed by carbachol IC50 7 microM or muscarine IC50 13 microM. This depression was also induced by AChE inhibitors eserine or tacrine and was antagonized by 1 microM atropine or 5-10 microM clozapine. These results characterize transmission in the OT and demonstrate a role for muscarinic modulation of deeper synapses in the OT that is influenced by psychotherapeutic drugs.

Inhibition of liver fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase activity by Zn2+: reversal by imidazole pyruvate.

Imidazole pyruvate was found to be a very potent natural chelating agent in reversing the inhibition of liver fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase activity by Zn2+. This metabolite may play a physiological role in gluconeogenesis.

A new method for measurement of cyclic AMP phosphodiesterase activity.

The extreme sensitivity of chicken muscle fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase to inhibition by 5'-AMP has been utilized to develop a new method for the assay of cAMP phosphodiesterase activity. In this method, the substrate (cAMP) is first incubated with phosphodiesterase and the amount of 5'-AMP formed is then determined by measuring the degree of inhibition of fructose 1'6-bisphosphatase activity. The present method conveniently employs the spectrophotometric technique and is sensitive enough to detect the conversion of 50 pmol of cAMP to 5'-AMP in 1 ml of reaction mixture. This method is considered particularly valuable for those laboratories that are not equipped with facilities for measuring radioactivity.