The primary cilium is necessary for the differentiation and the maintenance of human adipose progenitors into myofibroblasts.

The primary cilium is an organelle, present at the cell surface, with various biological functions. We, and others, have shown that it plays a role in the differentiation of adipose progenitors (APs) into adipocytes. APs can also differentiate into myofibroblasts when treated with TGF-ß1. Several components of the TGF-ß1 pathway are located within the cilium suggesting a function for this organelle in AP myofibrogenesis. We studied differentiation of APs into myofibroblasts in two human models: APs of the adipose tissue (aAPs) and APs resident in the skeletal muscles (mAPs). We showed that, in vivo, myofibroblasts within muscles of patients with Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy were ciliated. In vitro, myofibroblasts derived from APs maintained a functional primary cilium. Using HPI4, a small molecule that inhibits ciliogenesis, and siRNA against Kif-3A, we provide evidence that the primary cilium is necessary both for the differentiation of APs into myofibroblasts and the maintenance of the phenotype. Disruption of the primary cilium inhibited TGF-ß1-signalisation providing a molecular mechanism by which the cilium controls myofibroblast differentiation. These data suggest that myofibroblasts from various origins are controlled differently by their primary cilium.

Characterization of adipocytes derived from fibro/adipogenic progenitors resident in human skeletal muscle.

A population of fibro/adipogenic but non-myogenic progenitors located between skeletal muscle fibers was recently discovered. The aim of this study was to determine the extent to which these progenitors differentiate into fully functional adipocytes. The characterization of muscle progenitor-derived adipocytes is a central issue in understanding muscle homeostasis. They are considered as being the cellular origin of intermuscular adipose tissue that develops in several pathophysiological situations. Here fibro/adipogenic progenitors were isolated from a panel of 15 human muscle biopsies on the basis of the specific cell-surface immunophenotype CD15+/PDGFRα+CD56-. This allowed investigations of their differentiation into adipocytes and the cellular functions of terminally differentiated adipocytes. Adipogenic differentiation was found to be regulated by the same effectors as those regulating differentiation of progenitors derived from white subcutaneous adipose tissue. Similarly, basic adipocyte functions, such as triglyceride synthesis and lipolysis occurred at levels similar to those observed with subcutaneous adipose tissue progenitor-derived adipocytes. However, muscle progenitor-derived adipocytes were found to be insensitive to insulin-induced glucose uptake, in association with the impairment of phosphorylation of key insulin-signaling effectors. Our findings indicate that muscle adipogenic progenitors give rise to bona fide white adipocytes that have the unexpected feature of being insulin-resistant.

The antidiabetic drug metformin exerts an antitumoral effect in vitro and in vivo through a decrease of cyclin D1 level.

Metformin is a widely used antidiabetic agent, which regulates glucose homeostasis through inhibition of liver glucose production and an increase in muscle glucose uptake. Recent studies suggest that metformin may reduce the risk of cancer, but its mode of action in cancer remains not elucidated. We investigated the effect of metformin on human prostate cancer cell proliferation in vitro and in vivo. Metformin inhibited the proliferation of DU145, PC-3 and LNCaP cancer cells with a 50% decrease of cell viability and had a modest effect on normal prostate epithelial cell line P69. Metformin did not induce apoptosis but blocked cell cycle in G(0)/G(1). This blockade was accompanied by a strong decrease of cyclin D1 protein level, pRb phosphorylation and an increase in p27(kip) protein expression. Metformin activated the AMP kinase pathway, a fuel sensor signaling pathway. However, inhibition of the AMPK pathway using siRNA against the two catalytic subunits of AMPK did not prevent the antiproliferative effect of metformin in prostate cancer cells. Importantly, oral and intraperitoneal treatment with metformin led to a 50 and 35% reduction of tumor growth, respectively, in mice bearing xenografts of LNCaP. Similar, to the in vitro study, metformin led to a strong reduction of cyclin D1 protein level in tumors providing evidence for a mechanism that may contribute to the antineoplastic effects of metformin suggested by recent epidemiological studies.

Surfing the insulin signaling web.

The diverse biological actions of insulin and insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I) are initiated by binding of the polypeptides to their respective cell surface tyrosine kinase receptors. These activated receptors phosphorylate a series of endogenous substrates on tyrosine, amongst which the insulin receptor substrate (IRS) proteins are the best characterized. Their phosphotyrosine-containing motifs become binding sites for Src homology 2 (SH2) domains on proteins such as SH2 domain-containing protein-tyrosine-phosphatase (SHP)-2/Syp, growth factor receptor bound-2 protein, (Grb-2), and phosphatidyl inositol 3 kinase (PI3 kinase), which participate in activation of specific signaling cascades. However, the IRS molecules are not only platforms for signaling molecules, they also orchestrate the generation of signal specificity, integration of signals induced by several extracellular stimuli, and signal termination and modulation. An extensive review is beyond the scope of the present article, which will be centered on our own contribution and reflect our biases.

Regulation of vascular endothelial growth factor expression by advanced glycation end products.

Advanced glycation end products (AGEs) are generated during long term diabetes and are correlated with the development of diabetic complications, such as retinopathy. Diabetic retinopathy is characterized by an increased retinal neovascularization due to the action of the angiogenic factor, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). In this report, we show that injection of insulin and glycated albumin (Alb-AGE) to mice increases VEGF mRNA expression in eyes. Insulin and Alb-AGE stimulate VEGF mRNA and protein expression in retinal epithelial cells (ARPE-19). Alb-AGE-induced VEGF expression is not modulated by the use of antioxidants, N-acetyl-l-cysteine or pyrrolidinedithiocarbamate, or by an inhibitor of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K), wortmannin. However, using an inhibitor of ERK activation, U0126, we show that Alb-AGE stimulates VEGF expression through an ERK-dependent pathway. Accordingly, we found that Alb-AGE activated mitogen-activate protein kinase, ERK1/2, JNK1/2, but not p38, and that Alb-AGE did not activate PI3K and PKB. Moreover, Alb-AGE activated the transcription factor, hypoxia inducible factor-1 (HIF-1) DNA binding activity. This activation is mediated by an increase in accumulation of the HIF-1alpha protein through an ERK-dependent pathway. Thus, stimulation of VEGF expression by Alb-AGE, through the activation of HIF-1, could play an important role in the development of diabetic retinopathy.

The adapter protein, Grb10, is a positive regulator of vascular endothelial growth factor signaling.

Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is an important regulator of vasculogenesis and angiogenesis. Activation of VEGF receptors leads to the recruitment of SH2 containing proteins which link the receptors to the activation of signaling pathways. Here we report that Grb10, an adapter protein of which the biological role remains unknown, is tyrosine phosphorylated in response to VEGF in endothelial cells (HUVEC) and in 293 cells expressing the VEGF receptor KDR. An intact SH2 domain is required for Grb10 tyrosine phosphorylation in response to VEGF, and this phosphorylation is mediated in part through the activation of Src. In HUVEC, VEGF increases Grb10 mRNA level. Expression of Grb10 in HUVEC or in KDR expressing 293 cells results in an increase in the amount and in the tyrosine phosphorylation of KDR. In 293 cells, this is correlated with the activation of signaling molecules, such as MAP kinase. By expressing mutants of Grb10, we found that the positive action of Grb10 is independent of its SH2 domain. Moreover, these Grb10 effects on KDR seem to be specific since Grb10 has no effect on the insulin receptor, and Grb2, another adapter protein, does not mimic the effect of Grb10 on KDR. In conclusion, we propose that VEGF up-regulates Grb10 level, which in turn increases KDR molecules, suggesting that Grb10 could be involved in a positive feedback loop in VEGF signaling.

Insulin and insulin-like growth factor-I induce vascular endothelial growth factor mRNA expression via different signaling pathways.

In this study we have investigated the molecular mechanisms of insulin and insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) action on vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) gene expression. Treatment with insulin or IGF-I for 4 h increased the abundance of VEGF mRNA in NIH3T3 fibroblasts expressing either the human insulin receptor (NIH-IR) or the human IGF-I receptor (NIH-IGFR) by 6- and 8-fold, respectively. The same elevated levels of mRNA were maintained after 24 h of stimulation with insulin, whereas IGF-I treatment further increased VEGF mRNA expression to 12-fold after 24 h. Pre-incubation with the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase inhibitor wortmannin abolished the effect of insulin on VEGF mRNA expression in NIH-IR cells but did not modify the IGF-I-induced VEGF mRNA expression in NIH-IGFR cells. Blocking mitogen-activated protein kinase activation with the MEK inhibitor PD98059 abolished the effect of IGF-I on VEGF mRNA expression in NIH-IGFR cells but had no effect on insulin-induced VEGF mRNA expression in NIH-IR cells. Expression of a constitutively active PKB in NIH-IR cells induced the expression of VEGF mRNA, which was not further modified by insulin treatment. We conclude that VEGF induction by insulin and IGF-I occurs via different signaling pathways, the former involving phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/protein kinase B and the latter involving MEK/mitogen-activated protein kinase.

Cellular effects of phosphotyrosine-binding domain inhibitors on insulin receptor signaling and trafficking.

Shc and insulin receptor substrate 1 (IRS-1) are cytoplasmic substrates of tyrosine kinase receptors that engage, localize, and activate downstream SH2 enzymes. Each contains a phosphotyrosine-binding (PTB) domain that is structurally unrelated to SH2 domains. We have designed high-affinity, cellular inhibitors of the Shc PTB domain by incorporating nonnatural, phosphatase-resistant amino acids into short peptides. None of the inhibitors bind the IRS-1 PTB domain, consistent with distinct specificities for domains. The best inhibitor of the Shc domain was introduced by electroporation into Rat1 fibroblasts that express human insulin receptors. Insulin-stimulated phosphorylation of Shc was inhibited, with no effect on IRS-1, and downstream effects on mitogen-activated protein kinase and DNA synthesis were both inhibited. The PTB domain inhibitor had less influence on epidermal growth factor-induced effects and essentially no impact on serum- or phorbol ester-induced effects. The inhibitor did not affect insulin internalization and its degradation. We conclude that the PTB domain of Shc is critical for its phosphorylation by the insulin receptor, that Shc is an important mediator of insulin's mitogenic effects, and that Shc is not central to insulin receptor cycling in these cells. PTB domains can be inhibited selectively in cells and represent potential targets for drug discovery.

Human GRB-IRbeta/GRB10. Splice variants of an insulin and growth factor receptor-binding protein with PH and SH2 domains.

cDNA clones encoding human (h) Grb7 and a previously unknown protein with high homology to hGrb-IR and mGrb10 (where m indicates mouse) were found by screening expressed sequence tag data bases. hGrb7 mRNA expression is greatest in pancreas and restricted to a few other tissues. The second protein termed hGrb-IRbeta/Grb10 contains an intact PH domain and lacks the 80-residue mGrb10 insertion. Expression is greatest in pancreas and muscle but occurs in nearly all tissues. hGrb-IRbeta/Grb10 and hGrb-IR likely arise as alternative mRNA splicing products of a common gene. Reverse transcriptase-coupled polymerase chain reaction shows both mRNAs in muscle. In cells, Grb-IRbeta/Grb10 protein translocates from cytosol to membrane upon insulin stimulation, most likely due to direct interactions with the insulin receptor. These interactions are mediated by the SH2 domain and additional regions of the protein. Studies with mutated receptors and synthetic phosphopeptides show that the hGrb-IRbeta/Grb10 SH2 domain binds at least two sites in the insulin receptor: the kinase activation loop > the juxtamembrane site. hGrb-IRbeta/Grb10 also binds a 135-kDa phosphoprotein in unstimulated 3T3-L1 adipocytes; binding is reduced upon insulin stimulation. In addition, the c-Abl SH3 domain binds Grb-IR/Grb10, whereas Fyn, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase p85, and Grb2 SH3 domains do not. The site of c-Abl SH3 domain interaction is highly conserved within the Grb-IR/Grb10/Grb7/Grb14 family. hGrb-IRbeta/Grb10 also binds platelet-derived growth factor and epidermal growth factor receptors, suggesting a broader role in the signaling pathways of numerous receptors. We conclude that hGrb-IRbeta/Grb10 is a widely expressed, PH and SH2 domain-containing, SH3 domain-binding protein that functions downstream from activated insulin and growth factor receptors.

Involvement of Janus kinases in the insulin signaling pathway.

The adaptor molecule growth-factor-receptor-bound protein-2 (Grb2) plays a role in insulin action since it links tyrosine phosphorylated IRS-1 and Shc to the guanine-nucleotide-exchange factor, Sos, which initiates the mitogen-activated-protein (MAP) kinase cascade by producing Ras-GTP. Both IRS-1 and Shc are phosphorylated by the insulin-receptor tyrosine kinase. In the present study, we have investigated whether the tyrosine kinases of the Janus kinase family (JAK) could be involved in insulin signaling by acting on Grb2. In fibroblasts over-expressing insulin receptors we observed that two tyrosine-phosphorylated proteins interact with Grb2 and with a mutant of Grb2, which lacks the Src homology 2 (SH2) domain, indicating that these proteins associate with the SH3 domains of Grb2. Further, we found that both JAK1 and JAK2 constitutively associate with Grb2, through interaction with the SH3 domains of Grb2. Finally, insulin appears to induce the tyrosine phosphorylation of JAK1, but does not modify the tyrosine phosphorylation state of JAK2. In conclusion, our results suggest that the JAK proteins could participate in insulin signal transduction, and could therefore constitute an alternative pathway for mediating some of the pleiotropic responses induced by insulin.

L-O-(2-malonyl)tyrosine: a new phosphotyrosyl mimetic for the preparation of Src homology 2 domain inhibitory peptides.

Inhibition of Src homology 2 (SH2) domain-binding interactions affords one potential means of modulating protein-tyrosine kinase-dependent signaling. Small phosphotyrosyl (pTyr)-containing peptides are able to bind to SH2 domains and compete with larger pTyr peptides or native pTyr-containing protein ligands. Such pTyr-containing peptides are limited in their utility as SH2 domain inhibitors in vivo due to their hydrolytic lability to protein-tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs) and the poor cellular penetration of the ionized phosphate moiety. An important aspect of SH2 domain inhibitor design is the creation of pTyr mimetics which are stable to PTPs and have reasonable bioavailability. To date, most PTP-resistant pTyr mimetics which bind to SH2 domains are phosphonates such as (phosphonomethyl)phenylalanine (Pmp, 2), [(monofluorophosphono)methyl]phenylalanine (FPmp, 3) or [(difluorophosphono)methyl]-phenylalanine (F2Pmp, 4). Herein we report the incorporation of a new non-phosphorus-containing pTyr mimetic, L-O-(2-malonyl)tyrosine (L-OMT, 5), into SH2 domain inhibitory peptides using the protected analogue L-N alpha-Fmoc-O'-(O",O"-di-tert-butyl-2-malonyl)tyrosine (6) and solid-phase peptide synthesis techniques. Five OMT-containing peptides were prepared against the following SH2 domains: the PI-3 kinase C-terminal p85 SH2 domain (Ac-D-(L-OMT)-V-P-M-L-amide, 10, IC50 = 14.2 microM), the Src SH2 domain (Ac-Q-(L-OMT)-E-E-I-P-amide, 11, IC50 = 25 microM, and Ac-Q-(L-OMT)-(L-OMT)-E-I-P-amide, 14, IC50 = 23 microM), the Grb2 SH2 domain (Ac-N-(L-OMT)-V-N-I-E-amide, 12, IC50 = 120 microM), and the N-terminal SH-PTP2 SH2 domain (Ac-L-N-(L-OMT)-I-D-L-D-L-V-amide, 13, IC50 = 22.0 microM). These results show that peptides 10, 11, 13, and 14 have reasonable affinity for their respective SH2 domains, with the IC50 value for the SH-PTP2 SH2 domain-directed peptide 13 being equivalent to that previously observed for the corresponding F2Pmp-containing peptide. OMT may afford a new structural starting point for the development of novel and useful SH2 domain inhibitors.

Apical localization of the alpha subunit of GTP-binding protein Go in choroidal and ciliated ependymocytes.

The presence of GTP-binding proteins (G proteins) has been studied in murine adult choroid plexuses and cultured fetal choroidal or hypothalamic ependymal cells by ADP-ribosylation catalyzed by Bordetella pertussis toxin (PTX) and by immunodetection using affinity-purified polyclonal antibodies against the alpha subunit of the Go protein (Go alpha), the major brain G protein. ADP-ribosylation with 32P-NAD and PTX of choroid plexus revealed an intense labeling at the 40 kDa level in addition to the known PTX-substrates at 41 kDa (Gi alpha) and 39 kDa (Go alpha). This 40 kDa substrate was also predominant in cultured ependymal cells. However, a positive immunoreactivity with the anti-Go alpha antibodies was detected at the level of the 39 kDa faster component, indicating the presence of Go alpha in both choroid plexuses and cultured ependymal cells. In thin frozen sections as well as in cultured cells, Go alpha was mainly immunolocalized at the apical pole of choroidal ependymocytes and in the kinocilia of ciliated ependymal cells. At the ultrastructural level, using gold immunoprobes, the immunoreactivity of a Go alpha-like protein was detected on the cytoplasmic face of the apical plasma membrane, coated pits and vesicles, and in the apical cytoplasmic matrix. In ciliated ependymal cells, the positive immunostaining displayed a dotted pattern at the surface of demembranated axonema of apical kinocilia. These findings strongly suggest that G proteins, especially Go, are involved in transducing chemical signals that modulate traffic and exchanges between cerebrospinal fluid and ependyma through the apical membrane of ependymocytes.

The presence of non-neuronal cells influences somatostatin release from cultured cerebral cortical cells.

We examined the effect of non-neuronal cells on somatostatin release from cultured cerebral cortical cells. Three culture models were used: (1) neuron-enriched cultures obtained from cortex of 17-day-old rat embryos and exposed to 10 microM cytosine arabinoside (Ara C) for 48 h between days 3 and 5 after plating; (2) whole cell cultures obtained by using the same protocol but untreated with Ara C; (3) glial primary cultures obtained from newborn rats. We studied: (i) the cellular composition of the cultures by using two astroglial markers: vimentin and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP); (ii) the spontaneous and forskolin-stimulated somatostatin release. In 8-day-old cultures morphological data revealed that Ara C treatment reduced glial cells to 6%. At 7 and 10 days of culture somatostatin spontaneously released from Ara C-treated cells was higher than that measured from untreated cells. On the 17th day of culture, neuron-enriched cultures contained a lower amount of somatostatin than whole cell cultures. Forskolin elicited a dose-dependent release of somatostatin from whole cell cultures, but had no effect on neuron-enriched cultures. Astroglial released media (ARM) from glial primary cultures exposed to forskolin for 20 min induced somatostatin release from neuron-enriched cultures. HPLC analysis of endogenous amino acids of ARM showed that glutamate, glutamine, glycine and alanine were significantly increased after forskolin stimulation. Our results suggest a functional interaction between glial cells and neurons secreting somatostatin.

Characterization of ependymal cells in hypothalamic and choroidal primary cultures.

Long-term primary cultures derived from fetal mouse or rat hypothalamus and choroid plexus were obtained in serum-supplemented and chemically defined media. In order to identify and characterize cell types growing in our cultures, we used morphological features provided by phase-contrast, scanning and transmission electron microscopy. Immunological criteria were recognized, using antibodies against intermediate filament proteins (vimentin, gliofibrillar acid protein, cytokeratin, desmin, neurofilament proteins), actin, myosin, ciliary rootlets, laminin and fibronectin in single or double immunostaining, and monoclonal antibodies known to detect epitopes of ependymal or endothelial cells. Minor cell types such as astrocytes, fibroblasts and endothelial cells were distinguished. Ependymal cells, which exceeded 75% of the cultured cells, were identified by their cell shape and epithelial organization revealed by phase-contrast and transmission electron microscopy, by their apical differentiation evidenced by scanning and transmission electron microscopy, and by certain molecular markers (e.g. gliofibrillar acid or ciliary rootlet proteins) detected by immunofluorescence. Four ependymal cell types were recognized: choroidal ependymocytes, ciliated and unciliated ependymal cells, and tanycytes. All these cultured ependymal cell types showed a remarkable resemblance to in vivo ependymocytes, in terms of marker expression and ultrastructural features.