The Potential of Wood Vinegar to Replace Antimicrobials Used in Animal Husbandry-A Review.

The indiscriminate use of antimicrobials in animal husbandry can result in various types of environmental contamination. Part of the dose of these products is excreted, still active, in the animals' feces and urine. These excreta are widely used as organic fertilizers, which results in contamination with antimicrobial molecules. The impacts can occur in several compartments, such as soil, groundwater, and surface watercourses. Also, contamination by antimicrobials fed or administrated to pigs, chickens, and cattle can reach the meat, milk, and other animal products, which calls into question the sustainability of using these products as part of eco-friendly practices. Therefore, a search for alternative natural products is required to replace the conventional antimicrobials currently used in animal husbandry, aiming to mitigate environmental contamination. We thus carried out a review addressing this issue, highlighting wood vinegar (WV), also known as pyroligneous acid, as an alternative antimicrobial with good potential to replace conventional products. In this regard, many studies have demonstrated that WV is a promising product. WV is a nontoxic additive widely employed in the food industry to impart a smoked flavor to foods. Studies have shown that, depending on the WV concentration, good results can be achieved using it as an antimicrobial against pathogenic bacteria and fungi and a valuable growth promoter for poultry and pigs.

Antimicrobial activity and chemical profile of wood vinegar from eucalyptus (Eucalyptus urophylla x Eucalyptus grandis - clone I144) and bamboo (Bambusa vulgaris).

Microbial resistance to drugs is a public health problem; therefore, there is a search for alternatives to replace conventional products with natural agents. One of the potential antimicrobial agents is wood vinegar derived from the carbonization of lignocellulosic raw materials. The objectives of the present work were to evaluate the antibacterial and antifungal action of two kinds of wood vinegar (WV), one of Eucalyptus urograndis wood and another of Bambusa vulgaris biomass, and determine their chemical profile. The antimicrobial effect was assessed against Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella enteritidis, Escherichia coli, Streptococcus agalactiae, and Candida albicans. The minimum inhibitory concentration and the minimum bactericidal and fungicidal concentrations were determined. Micrographs of the microorganisms before and after exposure to both kinds of wood vinegar were obtained by scanning electron microscopy. The chemical profile of the eucalyptus and bamboo vinegar was carried out by gas chromatography and mass spectrometry (GC/MS). Both types of WV presented significant antimicrobial activity, with the bamboo one having a higher efficiency. Both studied pyroligneous extracts seem promising for developing natural antimicrobials due to their efficiency against pathogens. GC/MS analyses demonstrated that the chemical profiles of both kinds of WV were similar but with some significant differences. The major component of the eucalyptus vinegar was furfural (17.2%), while the bamboo WV was phenol (15.3%). Several compounds in both WVs have proven antimicrobial activity, such as acetic acid, furfural, phenol, cresols, guaiacol, and xylenols. Together, they are the major in the chemical composition of the organic fraction of both WVs. Bamboo vinegar had a more expressive content of organic acids. Micrographs of microorganisms taken after exposure to both kinds of wood vinegar displayed several cell modifications. The potential of both types of wood vinegar as a basis for natural antimicrobial products seems feasible due to their proven effect on inhibiting the microorganisms' growth assessed in this experiment.

Use of a product based on wood vinegar of Eucalyptus clone I144 used in the control of bovine mastitis.

Bovine mastitis is one of the most frequent diseases in dairy cattle worldwide. The use of antiseptics in milking, if properly used, can lead to a reduction in potentially pathogenic microorganisms and their transmission between herds. Several medicinal plants have antiseptic potential, including eucalyptus (Eucalyptus spp.). Therefore, the objective of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of wood vinegar from Eucalyptus urograndis clone GG I144 (EU) as an antiseptic in vitro and in vivo; in addition, to its cytotoxicity and antimicrobial resistance. Fifteen bovines were used, lactating females 3-6 years of age and divided into three groups of five animals each. The wood vinegar was placed in the teats of the animal for 28 days and collections of cellular debris were performed every 7 days. At the Veterinary Microbiology Laboratory (LAMIV) of UFERSA, the samples were processed and serial dilution was performed in Petri plates with plate count agar (PCA) at 37 °C. Cytotoxicity was verified based on morphological alterations and metabolic activity. Morphological changes were not observed in all cells incubated with 1 % pyroligneous extract. The in vitro data demonstrated antimicrobial activity against S. aureus, S. agalactiae, Salmonella, E. coli and P. aeruginosa. The bacteria of the genus Staphylococcus and Corynebacterium were resistant to penicillin (PEN), rifampicin (RIF), nitrofurantoin (NIT), erythromycin (ERI), and ciprofloxacin (CIP). The extract was used in vivo in the post-dipping of dairy cows, which reduced the microbiological load present in the mammary glands from 4.74 to 2.54 CFU, indicating its future use as an antiseptic.

Briquette production as a sustainable alternative for waste management in the tannin extraction industry.

Tannins are polyphenols that can be extracted from different parts of the plant and have different known commercial applications. The extraction of tannins generates a significant amount of low-density wastes. An alternative that can be applied to ensure energy reuse of this low-density waste is a densification process, such as briquetting. Thus, this research work aimed to assess the energy potential of the residue from the extraction of tannins of different forest species, aiming at its energy reuse in the form of briquettes. Stem barks of 6 forest species (Acacia mangium, AM; Anacardium occidentale, AO; Anadenanthera colubrina, AC; Azadirachta indica, AI; Mimosa caesalpiniaefolia, MC; Mimosa tenuiflora, MT) were used after tannin extraction. Bulk density, energy (higher, lower, and net heating value) and thermal (TG/DTG) properties, and chemical constitution (extractives, lignin, and holocellulose) of the materials were determined. In addition, briquette compaction ratio, apparent density, volumetric expansion, and water adsorption over the days were evaluated. The highest bulk densities were found in the barks of Anadenanthera colubrina (0.529 g.cm-3) and Mimosa tenuiflora (0.407 g.cm-3), whereas the species that showed the best result of higher heating value was Acacia mangium (20.44 MJ.kg-1), followed by Azadirachta indica (19.39 MJ.kg-1) and Mimosa caesalpiniifolia (18.85 MJ.kg-1). Briquetting increased the density of the evaluated material by 2.3 to 4.9 times. All briquettes produced with wastes from tannin extraction evaluated in this work showed potential for energy production. With more information on the quantification of waste generated and data on the economic viability of production, these tannin-producing industries can benefit both environmentally and economically, by reusing these wastes for energy production.

Efficiency of Pyroligneous Extract from Jurema Preta (Mimosa tenuiflora [Willd.] Poiret) as an Antiseptic in Cats (Felis catus) Subjected to Ovariosalpingohysterectomy.

Pyroligneous extract of Jurema preta (Mimosa tenuiflora [Willd.] Poiret) was evaluated for its efficacy as a cutaneous antiseptic in cats (Felis catus) that were subjected to ovariosalpingohysterectomy. For this purpose, 30 cats without a defined breed were sterilized and divided into two groups. The first group was the positive control, treated with 0.5% chlorhexidine-alcohol solution, and the second group was treated with 20% pyroligneous extract of M. tenuiflora. Regardless of age and sex, all animals had visible healing at similar times. A significant reduction in bacterial growth was observed in animals treated with the extract, and no cytotoxicity was observed in the feline epithelial cells. In addition, surgical wounds of cats treated with M. tenuiflora extract exhibited improved healing. On agar plates, treatment with both chlorhexidine and M. tenuiflora extract resulted in the inhibition zones for all bacterial strains isolated from surgical wounds. Therefore, M. tenuiflora extract is demonstrated to have antiseptic effects on the surgical wounds of cats undergoing ovariosalpingohysterectomy.

Production of kraft pulp from Ochroma pyramidale wood / Produção de celulose kraft a partir da madeira de Ochroma pyramidale

Brazil stands out in the international scenario in the production of short-fiber pulp. Despite the great Brazilian biodiversity, that production is based on exotic Eucalyptus clones. In this sense, there may be great potential in the assessment of new sources of fibers from the Brazilian flora, including the Amazon. The present study aimed to assess the technical potential of the wood of Ochroma pyramidale (Malvaceae) for the production of kraft pulp. Four-year-old trees were harvested from a commercial forest for lumber production in Mato Grosso state (Brazil). We determined the wood's chemical compositions (holocellulose, Klason lignin, soluble lignin, extractives and ash contents), physical properties (density and porosity), and fiber morphology (fiber length, width and thickness, lumen diameter, wall fraction, coefficient of flexibility, and slenderness and Runkel ratios). The wood was subjected to pulping with an effective alkali charge ranging from 10 to 24%, with intervals of 2%. Ochroma pyramidale wood presented characteristics favorable to the production of cellulosic pulp, such as appropriate fiber dimensions and low lignin, extractives, and ash content. The amount of residual active alkali and pH of the black liquor were positively related to the increase of the alkali charge employed in the pulping process. The increase of alkali charge decreased the pulp yield, kappa number and waste content, and increased the hexenuronic acid concentration.(AU)

O Brasil se destaca no cenário internacional em relação a produção de celulose de fibra curta. Apesar da grande biodiversidade brasileira, essa produção está baseada em clones de espécies exóticas de Eucalyptus. Nesse contexto, pode haver grande potencial na avaliação de novas fontes de fibras da flora brasileira, incluindo a região amazônica. O presente estudo teve como objetivo avaliar o potencial tecnológico da madeira de Ochroma pyramidale (Malvaceae) para produção de celulose kraft. Indivíduos de quatro anos de idade foram colhidos em um plantio comercial para produção de serrados no Estado do Mato Grosso. Determinamos as propriedades químicas (teores de holocelulose, lignina Klason, lignina solúvel, extrativos e cinzas), físicas (massa específica e porosidade) e morfologia de fibras (comprimento e largura de fibras, diâmetro do lume, espessura e fração de parede, coeficiente de flexibilidade, índice de enfeltramento e de Runkel) da madeira. Na polpação kraft a carga alcalina aplicada variou entre 10 e 24%, com intervalo de 2%. A madeira de Ochroma pyramidale apresentou características favoráveis à produção de polpa celulósica, como dimensões apropriadas das fibras e baixos teores de lignina, extrativos e cinzas. Os teores de álcali ativo residual e pH do licor negro apresentaram relação crescente com a carga alcalina aplicada nos processos de polpação. O acréscimo da carga alcalina reduziu o rendimento em polpação, número kappa, teor de rejeitos e aumentou o teor de ácidos hexenurônicos.(AU)

Resistance of acetylated Jacaranda copaia wood to termites and decaying fungi attack / Resistência da madeira acetilada de Jacaranda copaia ao ataque de cupins e fungos apodrecedores

The natural durability of the wood is essential for the definition of its use, and this property can be enhanced with the proper chemical treatment of the wood. Thus, the objective of this study was to evaluate the resistance to termites and decay fungi of Jacaranda copaia wood chemically modified through acetylation. Five experimental treatments were assessed: acetylation for 2, 4, 6 and 8 hours and a control (non-acetylated). The acetylation was carried out by immersing wood samples in acetic anhydride at 90 °C. Acetylated and control samples were subjected to the action of xylophagous termites (Nasutitermes sp.) and decaying fungi (Gloeophyllum trabeum and Trametes versicolor). The acetylation process significantly increased the resistance of Jacaranda copaia wood to the attack of the xylophagous organisms. There was no mass loss after exposure to termites of the wood in any of the acetylation treatments, while in the control wood, mass loss was 9.5%. Regarding the decaying fungi, mass loss occurred in all treatments. Acetylation for 6 and 8 hours were the most efficient chemical treatments, increasing the resistance class of the Jacaranda copaia wood to highly resistant.(AU)

A durabilidade natural da madeira é essencial para a definição de seu uso, e essa propriedade pode ser potencializada com o tratamento químico adequado da madeira. Assim, o objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar a resistência da madeira de Jacaranda copaia modificada quimicamente por acetilação a cupins e fungos apodrecedores. Cinco tratamentos experimentais foram avaliados: acetilação por 2, 4, 6 e 8 horas e um controle (não acetilado). A acetilação foi realizada por imersão das amostras de madeira em anidrido acético a 90°C. Amostras acetiladas e controle foram submetidas à ação de cupins xilófagos (Nasutitermes sp.) e fungos apodrecedores (Gloeophyllum trabeum e Trametes versicolor). O processo de acetilação aumentou significativamente a resistência da madeira de Jacaranda copaia ao ataque dos organismos xilófagos. Não houve perda de massa após exposição aos cupins da madeira em nenhum dos tratamentos de acetilação, enquanto na madeira controle a perda de massa foi de 9,5%. Em relação aos fungos em decomposição, ocorreu perda de massa em todos os tratamentos. Os tratamentos químicos mais eficientes foram os de acetilação por 6 e 8 horas, elevando a classe de resistência da madeira de Jacaranda copaia para altamente resistente.(AU)

Propriedades físico-mecânicas da madeira de freijó, Cordia goeldiana (Boraginacea), produzida em sistema agroflorestal multiestratificado no sudoeste da Amazôni / Physico-mechanical properties of the wood of freijó, Cordia goeldiana (Boraginacea), produced in a multi-stratified agroforestry system in the southwestern Amazon

Os sistemas agroflorestais (SAFs) integram, com práticas sustentáveis, culturas agrícolas e florestais para produção de madeira e alimentos, conservando os serviços ambientais e a biodiversidade. O freijó, Cordia goeldiana, tem potencial para cultivo na Amazônia para fins madeireiros, porém dados sobre as características de sua madeira em SAFs são escassas. Objetivou-se determinar as propriedades físico-mecânicas e aplicações tecnológicas da madeira de freijó produzida em um SAF multiestratificado estabelecido no estado de Rondônia, Brasil em 1996. No SAF, as espécies agrícolas e madeireiras foram estabelecidas em renques duplos no espaçamento 5,0 m x 2,5 m. Abateram-se três árvores de freijó com 19 anos de idade, para caracterização química, física (densidade e estabilidade dimensional) e mecânica (compressão, flexão estática, dureza Janka e cisalhamento) da madeira. A madeira de freijó apresentou composição química similar à de madeiras nobres tropicais, peso moderado (582,63 kg m-3) e estabilidade dimensional elevada em comparação com outras madeiras consagradas no mercado (retração longitudinal, radial e tangencial = 0,25, 4,27 e 6,83%, respectivamente). Os valores de resistência à compressão paralela (32,32 MPa) e perpendicular (8.02 MPa), resistência específica (55,32 MPa kg-1 m-3), dureza Janka paralela (2373,33 N) e perpendicular (2326,67 N), resistência à flexão estática (63,5 MPa) e ao cisalhamento (5,94 MPa) foram semelhantes aos valores observados em outras madeiras tropicais de alta densidade, produzidas em monocultivo e florestas naturais. A madeira em estudo é adequada para fabricação de produtos de alto valor agregado, como móveis finos, pisos residenciais, instrumentos musicais e peças estruturais. (AU)

Physico-mechanical properties of the wood of freijó, Cordia goeldiana (Boraginacea), produced in a multi-stratified agroforestry system in the southwestern Amazon / Propriedades físico-mecânicas da madeira de freijó, Cordia goeldiana (Boraginacea), produzida em sistema agroflorestal multiestratificado no sudoeste da Amazônia

Agroforestry systems (AFSs) integrate, through sustainable practices, agricultural and forest crops for the production of wood and food, providing environmental services, and conserving biodiversity. The freijó (Cordia goeldiana) has potential for cultivation in the Amazon for timber purposes, but data on the characteristics of its wood produced in AFSs are scarce. Our objective was to determine the physical-mechanical properties and suggest technological applications of freijó wood produced in a multi-stratified AFS established in the state of Rondônia, Brazil in 1996. Agricultural and forest species were established in the AFS in double rows with 5.0-m x 2.5-m spacing. Three 19-year-old freijó trees were harvested for chemical, physical (density and dimensional stability), and mechanical (compression, static bending, Janka hardness, and shear strength) characterization of the wood. The wood presented a chemical composition similar to tropical hardwoods, was moderately heavy (582.63 kg m-3), and had high dimensional stability in comparison with other consecrated woods on the market (longitudinal, radial, and tangential retraction = 0.25, 4.27, and 6.83%, respectively). The values determined for parallel (32.32 MPa) and perpendicular compression (8.02 MPa), specific strength (55.32 MPa kg-1 m-3), parallel (2373.33 N) and perpendicular Janka hardness (2326.67 N), strength to static bending (63.5 MPa), and shear (5.94 MPa) were similar to the values ​​observed in other high-density tropical woods grown in either monoculture plantations or natural forests. The wood under study is suitable for manufacture of high-value-added products, such as fine furniture, residential floors, musical instruments and structural pieces.(AU)

Os sistemas agroflorestais (SAFs) integram, com práticas sustentáveis, culturas agrícolas e florestais para produção de madeira e alimentos, conservando os serviços ambientais e a biodiversidade. O freijó, Cordia goeldiana, tem potencial para cultivo na Amazônia para fins madeireiros, porém dados sobre as características de sua madeira em SAFs são escassas. Objetivou-se determinar as propriedades físico-mecânicas e aplicações tecnológicas da madeira de freijó produzida em um SAF multiestratificado estabelecido no estado de Rondônia, Brasil em 1996. No SAF, as espécies agrícolas e madeireiras foram estabelecidas em renques duplos no espaçamento 5,0 m x 2,5 m. Abateram-se três árvores de freijó com 19 anos de idade, para caracterização química, física (densidade e estabilidade dimensional) e mecânica (compressão, flexão estática, dureza Janka e cisalhamento) da madeira. A madeira de freijó apresentou composição química similar à de madeiras nobres tropicais, peso moderado (582,63 kg m-3) e estabilidade dimensional elevada em comparação com outras madeiras consagradas no mercado (retração longitudinal, radial e tangencial = 0,25, 4,27 e 6,83%, respectivamente). Os valores de resistência à compressão paralela (32,32 MPa) e perpendicular (8.02 MPa), resistência específica (55,32 MPa kg-1 m-3), dureza Janka paralela (2373,33 N) e perpendicular (2326,67 N), resistência à flexão estática (63,5 MPa) e ao cisalhamento (5,94 MPa) foram semelhantes aos valores observados em outras madeiras tropicais de alta densidade, produzidas em monocultivo e florestas naturais. A madeira em estudo é adequada para fabricação de produtos de alto valor agregado, como móveis finos, pisos residenciais, instrumentos musicais e peças estruturais.(AU)

Chemical profiling of liposoluble liquid smokes obtained from Eucalyptus wood tar: confirmation of absence of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.

Liposoluble liquid smoke (LS) preparations are versatile food additives used worldwide. The objective of the present work was to characterise the chemical composition of four types of industrial liposoluble LS currently used as the basis for the production of commercial smoke flavourings. The LS was obtained by vacuum fractional distillation from a raw pyrolysis oil (raw LS) obtained primarily from eucalyptus wood tar. The raw LS and the four LS flavourings obtained therefrom were analysed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) to characterise the main groups of components. Additional analyses were carried out to evaluate the occurrence of PAHs (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons) in the samples, as the producer claimed that these samples are free of PAHs. The main chemical components characterised in the LS were organic acids, aldehydes, esters, furans, pyrans and phenols, with phenolic compounds being the major chemical group. For the four LS tested samples, no PAHs could be detected with the method employed, which could indicate that the industrial processing was able to effectively remove this harmful class of compounds, or at least decrease its concentrations to levels below the limits of detection of the method of analysis.

Physical-mechanical properties of wood panel composites produced with Qualea sp. sawdust and recycled polypropylene.

Adhesive-free wood-plastic composite panels made with lignocellulosic wastes, and recycled plastics can be a sustainable option for generating useful "green" products. The present work assessed the physical-mechanical properties of adhesive-free panels produced with Qualea sp. sawdust and recycled polypropylene (PP). Discarded PP packaging was used. The packages were washed and ground with a laboratory knife mill until particle size of 10 to 14 mesh. Qualea sp. sawdust was sieved to select particle size of 14 to 30 mesh. Four experimental treatments were assessed by varying the percentages of PP and sawdust, as follows, 60 and 40%, 70 and 30%, 80 and 20%, and 90 and 10%, in an entirely randomized design with 3 panels per treatment, totaling 12 panels. The mats were hot-pressed at 180 °C during 20 min, the first 10 min under pressure of 1.0 MPa and the remaining 10 min at 42 MPa. Physical-mechanical properties of the panels were obtained as follows: density, moisture content, water absorption, thickness swelling, moduli of elasticity and rupture, and Rockwell hardness. In general, an increase of the percentage of PP provided higher dimensional stability to the panels, but there was no significant influence on mechanical strength.

Energetic characterization and evaluation of briquettes produced from naturally colored cotton waste.

Cotton crops generate millions of tons of lignocellulosic waste in Brazil that could be used in energy generation; however, the main destination of this raw material is soil incorporation. The aim of this work was to perform an energetic characterization and evaluation of briquettes produced from different agricultural waste of naturally colored cotton for power generation. The cultivars Brasil Sementes (BRS) Jade and Topazio were studied, with white cotton (BRS 286) as standard for comparison purposes. Two different parts of each species, stalk and cotton shell, were analyzed by bulk density, proximate analysis, higher heating value, cellulose, hemicellulose, protein, fat and lignin content, thermogravimetric analysis, and briquette mechanical strength. The results of the energetic characterization indicated a higher energetic potential of the colored species when compared with the white cotton, especially because of the volatile matter content, fixed carbon, and higher heating value. The briquette mechanical strength was higher in the samples formulated by a mixture of stalk and shell. Finally, it was concluded that the waste from colored cotton cultivars, Jade and Topazio, is capable to generate briquettes with good mechanical and physico-chemical characteristics, especially those formed by the mixture of stalk and shell.