An Oligonucleotide Delivery Platform to Enable Assessment of Intracellular Transcripts in Live Cells by Flow Cytometry.

The measurement of mRNA transcripts in live cells has been limited by inefficient delivery vehicles for oligonucleotides. Using a delivery platform which utilizes fluorophores capable of forming intramolecular H-type excitonic dimers, we show that antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) can be delivered across the plasma membrane directly into the cytosol without receptor mediation. With HIV infection of CD4+ lymphocytes as a model system, we quantitate the level of viral infection present in live single cells with flow cytometry by measuring the hybridization of ASOs to viral sequences; we then compare this measurement with a standard HIV analysis, that is, binding of an antibody against the HIV cell surface protein gp120. The nucleic acids delivery platform described herein also enables inhibition of HIV infection by addition of ASO constructs targeting sequences in the virus' highly conserved 5'-untranslated region. Our analysis quantitates the level of inhibition by comparing both the MFI values and the mean fluorescence intensity as calculated by integration under each curve. Thus, a means for measuring intracellular transcripts at the live single cell level and the potential for delivery of a new class of antiviral agents is described. © 2020 International Society for Advancement of Cytometry.

IFITM-2 and IFITM-3 but not IFITM-1 restrict Rift Valley fever virus.

We show that interferon-induced transmembrane protein 1 (IFITM-1), IFITM-2, and IFITM-3 exhibit a broad spectrum of antiviral activity against several members of the Bunyaviridae family, including Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV), La Crosse virus, Andes virus, and Hantaan virus, all of which can cause severe disease in humans and animals. We found that RVFV was restricted by IFITM-2 and -3 but not by IFITM-1, whereas the remaining viruses were equally restricted by all IFITMs. Indeed, at low doses of alpha interferon (IFN-α), IFITM-2 and -3 mediated more than half of the antiviral activity of IFN-α against RVFV. IFITM-2 and -3 restricted RVFV infection mostly by preventing virus membrane fusion with endosomes, while they had no effect on virion attachment to cells, endocytosis, or viral replication kinetics. We found that large fractions of IFITM-2 and IFITM-3 occupy vesicular compartments that are distinct from the vesicles coated by IFITM-1. In addition, although overexpression of all IFITMs expanded vesicular and acidified compartments within cells, there were marked phenotypic differences among the vesicular compartments occupied by IFITMs. Collectively, our data provide new insights into the possible mechanisms by which the IFITM family members restrict distinct viruses.

Enhanced effector function of CD8(+) T cells from healthy controls and HIV-infected patients occurs through thrombin activation of protease-activated receptor 1.

Disruption of vascular integrity by trauma and other tissue insults leads to inflammation and activation of the coagulation cascade. The serine protease thrombin links these 2 processes. The proinflammatory function of thrombin is mediated by activation of protease-activated receptor 1 (PAR-1). We found that peripheral blood effector memory CD4(+) and CD8(+) T lymphocytes expressed PAR-1 and that expression was increased in CD8(+) T cells from human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected patients. Thrombin enhanced cytokine secretion in CD8(+) T cells from healthy controls and HIV-infected patients. In addition, thrombin induced chemokinesis, but not chemotaxis, of CD8(+) T cells, which led to structural changes, including cell polarization and formation of a structure rich in F-actin and phosphorylated ezrin-radexin-moesin proteins. These findings suggest that thrombin mediates cross-talk between the coagulation system and the adaptive immune system at sites of vascular injury through increased T-cell motility and production of proinflammatory cytokines.

High-throughput quantitative analysis of HIV-1 and SIV-specific ADCC-mediating antibody responses.

We have developed a high-throughput platform to detect the presence of HIV-1 and SIV-specific ADCC-mediating antibody responses. The assay is based on the hydrolysis of a cell-permeable fluorogenic peptide substrate containing a sequence recognized by the serine protease, Granzyme B (GzB). GzB is delivered into target cells by cytotoxic effector cells as a result of antigen (Ag)-specific Ab-Fcγ receptor interactions. Within the target cells, effector cell-derived GzB hydrolyzes the substrate, generating a fluorescent signal that allows individual target cells that have received a lethal hit to be identified by flow cytometry. Results are reported as the percentage of target cells with GzB activity (%GzB). Freshly isolated or cryopreserved PBMC and/or NK cells can be used as effector cells. CEM.NKR cells expressing the CCR5 co-receptor are used as a target cells following: (i) coating with recombinant envelope glycoprotein, (ii) infection with infectious molecular clones expressing the Env antigens of primary and lab adapted viruses, or (iii) chronic infection with a variant of HIV-1/IIIB, termed A1953. In addition, primary CD4(+) T cells infected with HIV-1 in vitro can also be used as targets. The assay is highly reproducible with a coefficient of variation of less than 25%. Target and effector cell populations, in the absence of serum/plasma, were used to calculate background (8.6 ± 2.3%). We determined that an initial dilution of 1:50 and 1:100 is required for testing of human and non-human primate samples, respectively. This assay allows for rapid quantification of HIV-1 or SIV-specific ADCC-mediating antibodies that develop in response to vaccination, or in the natural course of infection, thus providing researchers with a new methodology for investigating the role of ADCC-mediating antibodies as correlates of control or prevention of HIV-1 and SIV infection.

Multiparametric analysis of apoptosis by flow cytometry.

Flow cytometry is the most widely used technology for analyzing apoptosis. The multiparametric nature of flow cytometry allows several apoptotic characteristics to be combined in a single sample, making it a powerful tool for analyzing the complex progression of apoptotic death. This chapter provides guidelines for combining caspase detection, annexin V binding, DNA dye exclusion, and other single apoptotic assays into multiparametric assays.This approach to analyzing apoptosis provides far more information than single parameter assays that provide only an ambiguous "percent apoptotic" result, given that multiple early, intermediate and late apoptotic stages can be visualized simultaneously. This multiparametric approach is also amenable to a variety of flow cytometric instrumentation, both old and new.

Direct visualization of protease activity on cells migrating in three-dimensions.

Determining the specific role(s) of proteases in cell migration and invasion will require high-resolution imaging of sites of protease activity during live-cell migration through extracellular matrices. We have designed a novel fluorescent biosensor to detect localized extracellular sites of protease activity and to test requirements for matrix metalloprotease (MMP) function as cells migrate and invade three-dimensional collagen matrices. This probe fluoresces after cleavage of a peptide site present in interstitial collagen by a variety of proteases including MMP-2, -9, and -14 (MT1-MMP) without requiring transfection or modification of the cells being characterized. Using matrices derivatized with this biosensor, we show that protease activity is localized at the polarized leading edge of migrating tumor cells rather than further back on the cell body. This protease activity is essential for cell migration in native cross-linked but not pepsin-treated collagen matrices. The new type of high-resolution probe described in this study provides site-specific reporting of protease activity and insights into mechanisms by which cells migrate through extracellular matrices; it also helps to clarify discrepancies between previous studies regarding the contributions of proteases to metastasis.

Lytic granule loading of CD8+ T cells is required for HIV-infected cell elimination associated with immune control.

Virus-specific CD8+ T cells probably mediate control over HIV replication in rare individuals, termed long-term nonprogressors (LTNPs) or elite controllers. Despite extensive investigation, the mechanisms responsible for this control remain incompletely understood. We observed that HIV-specific CD8+ T cells of LTNPs persisted at higher frequencies than those of treated progressors with equally low amounts of HIV. Measured on a per-cell basis, HIV-specific CD8+ T cells of LTNPs efficiently eliminated primary autologous HIV-infected CD4+ T cells. This function required lytic granule loading of effectors and delivery of granzyme B to target cells. Defective cytotoxicity of progressor effectors could be restored after treatment with phorbol ester and calcium ionophore. These results establish an effector function and mechanism that clearly segregate with immunologic control of HIV. They also demonstrate that lytic granule contents of memory cells are a critical determinant of cytotoxicity that must be induced for maximal per-cell killing capacity.

Intracellular protease activation in apoptosis and cell-mediated cytotoxicity characterized by cell-permeable fluorogenic protease substrates.

Over the past decade the importance of signaling from reporter molecules inside live cells and tissues has been clearly established. Biochemical events related to inflammation, tumor metastasis and proliferation, and viral infectivity and replication are examples of processes being further defined as more molecular tools for live cell measurements become available. Moreover, in addition to quantitating parameters related to physiologic processes, real-time imaging of molecular interactions that compose basic cellular activities are providing insights into understanding disease mechanisms as well as extending clinical efficacy of therapeutic regimens. In this review the use of highly cell-permeable fluorogenic substrates that report protease activities inside live cells is described; applications to defining the molecular events of two cellular processes, i.e., apoptosis and cell-mediated cytotoxicity, are then illustrated.

A method in enzymology for measuring hydrolytic activities in live cell environments.

The capability of determining the physiologic role(s) of cellular enzymes requires probes with access to all intracellular and extracellular environments. Importantly, reporter molecules must be able to cross not only the plasma membrane but also enter organelles inside live cells without disturbing the physiologic integrity of the system under study. Additionally, each enzyme must recognize a probe by the same linear and conformational characteristics as it would a physiologic substrate or inhibitor. This chapter focuses on the design and use of cell- and tissue-permeable fluorogenic protease substrates. Their applications, which are far-reaching, include measurements for apoptosis, cytotoxicity, inflammation, cancer metastasis, and viral infections such as HIV. Recently, substitution of amino acids with nucleotides in the probe backbone has allowed measurements of nuclease activities and hybridization of oligonucleotides inside live cells and an example thereof is presented.

Granzyme B activity in target cells detects attack by cytotoxic lymphocytes.

Lymphocyte-mediated cytotoxicity via granule exocytosis operates by the perforin-mediated transfer of granzymes from CTLs and NK cells into target cells where caspase activation and other death pathways are triggered. Granzyme B (GzB) is a major cytotoxic effector in this pathway, and its fate in target cells has been studied by several groups using immunodetection. In this study, we have used a newly developed cell-permeable fluorogenic GzB substrate to measure this protease activity in three different living targets following contact with cytotoxic effectors. Although no GzB activity is measurable in CTL or NK92 effector cells, this activity rapidly becomes detectable throughout the target cytoplasm after effector-target engagement. We have combined the GzB substrate with a second fluorogenic substrate selective for caspase 3 to allow both flow cytometry and fluorescence confocal microscopy studies of cytotoxicity. With both effectors, caspase 3 activity appears subsequent to that of GzB inside all three targets. Overexpression of Bcl-2 in target cells has minimal effects on lysis, NK- or CTL-delivered GzB activity, or activation of target caspase 3. Detection of target GzB activity followed by caspase 3 activation provides a unique readout of a potentially lethal injury delivered by cytotoxic lymphocytes.

DPSS yellow-green 561-nm lasers for improved fluorochrome detection by flow cytometry.

INTRODUCTION: Blue-green 488-nm laser sources are widespread in flow cytometry but suffer some drawbacks for cell analysis, including their excitation of endogenous proteins (resulting in high cellular autofluorescence) and their less-than-optimal coincidence with the excitation maxima of commonly used fluorochromes, including the phycoerythrins (PE). Longer wavelength lasers such as green helium-neons and, more recently, diode-pumped solid state (DPSS) 532-nm sources have previously been employed to overcome these difficulties and improve overall sensitivity for PE. In this study, we evaluate an even longer wavelength DPSS 561-nm for its ability to improve PE and DsRed fluorescent protein detection sensitivity. METHODS: A DPSS 561-nm laser emitting at 10 mW was mounted onto a BD LSR II. Mouse thymoma cells labeled with cell surface marker antibodies conjugated to the R- and B-forms of PE were analyzed and compared with conventional 488-nm excitation using the same bandpass filters and signal travel distances. A similar analysis was carried out with cell lines expressing the red fluorescent protein DsRed, several green-yellow excited low molecular weight fluorochromes, and a rhodamine-based caspase substrate. Additionally, cells labeled with PE and co-labeled with fluorescein or simultaneously expressing green fluorescent protein (GFP) were analyzed to determine if PE excitation at 561 nm with simultaneous fluorescein/GFP detection was feasible. RESULTS: The DPSS 561-nm laser gave a several-fold improvement in the fluorochrome to autofluorescence ratios between PE-labeled cells and unlabeled controls. Analysis of cells expressing the fluorescent protein DsRed with the DPSS 561-nm source gave a 6-7-fold improvement in sensitivity over 488-nm excitation, and gave excellent excitation of yellow-green excited fluorochromes and rhodamine-based physiological probes. Yellow-green laser light also caused virtually no impingement on the spatially separated fluorescein/GFP detector, a significant problem with green laser sources, and also allowed simultaneous analysis of GFP and PE with virtually no signal overlap or requirement for color compensation. CONCLUSIONS: DPSS 561-nm laser excitation gave significantly improved sensitivity for both PE-labeled and DsRed expressing cells, with little contamination of a typical fluorescein/GFP detector.

Assessment of lymphocyte-mediated cytotoxicity using flow cytometry.

Cytotoxic lymphocytes, including cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) and natural killer (NK) cells, kill target cells by releasing granules containing perforin and granzymes, and/or via Fas-Fas ligand interactions. Both pathways lead to prompt activation within target cells of caspase cascades responsible for apoptosis induction and cell death. We have utilized cell-permeable fluorogenic caspase substrates and multiparameter flow cytometry to detect caspase activation in target cells, and applied these tools to quantify and visualize cytotoxic lymphocyte activities. This novel assay, referred to as the flow cytometric cytotoxicity (FCC) assay, is a nonradioactive single-cell-based assay that provides a more rapid, biologically informative, and sensitive approach to measure cytotoxic lymphocyte activity when compared to other assays such as the 51chromium (51Cr) release assay. In addition, the FCC assay can be used to study CTL-mediated killing of primary target cells of different cell lineages that are frequently not amenable to study by the 51Cr release assay. Furthermore, the FCC assay enables evaluation of the phenotype and fate of both target and effector cells, and as such, provides a useful new approach to illuminate the biology of cytotoxic lymphocytes.

Multiparametric analysis of apoptosis by flow and image cytometry.

Flow cytometric assays for apoptosis are now in widespread use. The multiparametric nature of flow cytometry allows multiple assays for several apoptotic characteristics to be combined in a single sample, providing a powerful tool for elucidating the complex progression of apoptotic death in a variety of cell types. This chapter describes one such assay, allowing simultaneous analysis of caspase activation, annexin V binding to "flipped" phosphatidylserine residues and membrane permeability to DNA binding dyes. This multidimensional approach to analyzing apoptosis provides far more information than single-parameter assays that provide only an ambiguous "percent apoptotic" result, given that multiple early, intermediate, and late apoptotic stages can be visualized simultaneously. This multiparametric approach is also amenable to a variety of flow cytometric instrumentation, both old and new.

Caspase activity is not sufficient to execute cell death.

Molecular studies of the physiological cell death process have focused attention on the role of effector caspases as critical common elements of the lethal mechanism. Diverse death signals act afferently via distinct signaling pathways to activate these resident proenzyme molecules post-translationally. Whether this molecular convergence represents the mechanistic point of irreversible commitment to cell death has not been established. That a number of caspase substrates are proteins that serve important roles in cellular homeostasis has led to the view that the acquisition of this activity must be the determinative step in cell death. Observations that caspases serve in a regulatory role to catalyze the appearance of new activities involved in orderly cellular dissolution challenge this model of death as a simple process of proteolytic destruction. We found previously that caspase-dependent nuclear cyclin dependent kinase 2 (Cdk2) activity appears to be necessary for cell death. Employing direct cytofluorimetric analyses of intracellular caspase activity and colony forming assays, we now show that transient blockade of caspase-dependent Cdk2 activity confers long-lived sparing from death on cells otherwise triggered to die and fully replete with caspase activity. These data demonstrate that caspases, while necessary for apoptosis, are not sufficient to exert lethality. Caspase activation per se does not represent an irreversible point of commitment to physiological cell death.

The effector phase of physiological cell death relies exclusively on the posttranslational activation of resident components.

Inhibitors of transcription and translation can protect cells from physiological cell deaths induced by a variety of stimuli. These observations have been taken to suggest that de novo macromolecular synthesis may be an essential component of the cell death process. Paradoxically, the same inhibitors, at higher concentrations, themselves trigger the death of cells. Previously, we have mapped a conserved and ordered sequence of events that exerts physiological cell death. Diverse signals converge to activate this lethal pathway, composed of a proteolytic cascade of caspases and subsequent cyclin-dependent kinases. Here we report that inhibitors of nuclear gene expression, when they block cell death, act upstream of this lethal process to prevent its activation. In contrast, when cell death is triggered by high doses of the inhibitors, these same essential molecules are activated, despite the essentially complete blockade of macromolecular synthesis. This inhibitor-induced death response is associated with the release of cytochrome c from mitochondria and the activation of apical caspase 9 and is blocked by overexpression of Bcl-2. These data demonstrate that all essential molecules that exert lethality already are resident within cells and are activated posttranslationally upon stimulation. De novo macromolecular synthesis pertains idiosyncratically only to upstream, modulatory elements of particular death responses.

Visualization and quantification of T cell-mediated cytotoxicity using cell-permeable fluorogenic caspase substrates.

We have developed a non-radioactive flow-cytometry assay to monitor and quantify the target-cell killing activities mediated by cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs). This flow-cytometry CTL (FCC) assay is predicated on measurement of CTL-induced caspase activation in target cells through detection of the specific cleavage of fluorogenic caspase substrates. Here we show that this assay reliably detects antigen-specific CTL killing of target cells, and demonstrate that it provides a more sensitive, more informative and safer alternative to the standard 51Cr-release assay most often used to quantify CTL responses. The FCC assay can be used to study CTL-mediated killing of primary host target cells of different cell lineages, and enables the study of antigen-specific cellular immune responses in real time at the single-cell level. As such, the FCC assay can provide a valuable tool for studies of infectious disease pathogenesis and development of new vaccines and immunotherapies.

Detection of localized caspase activity in early apoptotic cells by laser scanning cytometry.

BACKGROUND: Caspase activation is a critical early step in the onset of apoptosis. Cell-permeable fluorogenic caspase substrates have proven valuable in detecting caspase activation by flow cytometry. Nevertheless, detection of early low-level caspase activation has been difficult using conventional area or peak fluorescence analysis by flow cytometry, despite the apparent presence of these cells as observed by microscopy. We describe a method utilizing maximum fluorescence pixel analysis by laser scanning cytometry (LSC) to detect early apoptotic cells. METHODS: The PhiPhiLux-G(1)D(2) caspase 3/7 substrate was used in combination with DNA dye exclusion and annexin V binding to identify several stages of apoptosis in EL4 murine thymoma cells by both traditional flow and LSC. LSC analysis of maximum pixel brightness in individual cells demonstrated an intermediate caspase-low subpopulation not detectable by flow or LSC integral analysis. LSC analysis of caspase activity was then carried out using the larger UMR-106 rat osteosarcoma cell line to determine if this apparent early caspase activity could be correlated with localized, punctate caspase activity observed by microscopy. RESULTS: The caspase-low subpopulation found in apoptotic EL4 cells was also observable in UMR-106 cells. Relocation to cells with low fluorescence due to caspase activity and subsequent examination by microscopy demonstrated that these latter cells indeed show punctate, highly localized caspase activation foci that might represent an early stage in caspase activation. CONCLUSIONS: Cells with low-level, localized caspase expression can be detected using maximum pixel analysis by LSC. This methodology allows an early step of apoptotic activation to be resolved for further analysis.