Stable fluorescence conjugation of ZnO nanoparticles and their size dependent cellular uptake.

We evaluated size dependent cellular uptake of ZnO nanoparticles utilizing stably introduced Cy5.5, which emits long-wavelength fluorescence. Through (3-aminopropyl)triethoxysilane modification, ZnO nanoparticles of different sizes (20 and 70nm) were functionalized with amine moiety, which was further reacted with Cy5.5-N-hydroxylsuccinimide ester to make covalently conjugated Cy5.5 dye on ZnO nanoparticles. Field emission-scanning electron microscopic images revealed that average particle size as well as particle morphology of ZnO nanoparticles were not altered by Cy5.5 conjugation. Zeta potential measurement confirmed that the positive surface charge of ZnO nanoparticles was well preserved after successive conjugation reactions. Based on infrared, ultraviolet-visible light and photoluminescence spectroscopies, we verify that the Cy5.5 was stably introduced to ZnO nanoparticles without serious aggregation. Surface conjugated Cy5.5 showed high stability in deionized water, phosphate buffered saline and cell culture medium, showing less than 2% of release during 85h. Confocal microscopy and fluorescence-activated cell sorting analysis demonstrated that smaller ZnO nanoparticles were more taken up in greater quantities by HaCaT cells. Moreover, systematic study on cellular uptake pathway showed that smaller ZnO nanoparticles were internalized into cells mainly by clathrin-mediated endocytosis, while larger ZnO nanoparticles entered cells via several pathways.

Oxidative stress by layered double hydroxide nanoparticles via an SFK-JNK and p38-NF-κB signaling pathway mediates induction of interleukin-6 and interleukin-8 in human lung epithelial cells.

Anionic nanoclays are layered double hydroxide nanoparticles (LDH-NPs) that have been shown to exhibit toxicity by inducing reactive oxidative species and a proinflammatory mediator in human lung epithelial A549 cells. However, the molecular mechanism responsible for this LDH-NP-induced toxicity and the relationship between oxidative stress and inflammatory events remains unclear. In this study, we focused on intracellular signaling pathways and transcription factors induced in response to oxidative stress caused by exposure to LDH-NPs in A549 cells. Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascades, such as extracellular signal-regulated kinase, c-Jun-N-terminal kinase (JNK), and p38, were investigated as potential signaling mechanisms responsible for regulation of oxidative stress and cytokine release. Src family kinases (SFKs), which are known to mediate activation of MAPK, together with redox-sensitive transcription factors, including nuclear factor kappa B and nuclear factor-erythroid 2-related factor-2, were also investigated as downstream events of MAPK signaling. The results obtained suggest that LDH-NP exposure causes oxidative stress, leading to expression of antioxidant enzymes, such as catalase, glucose reductase, superoxide dismutase, and heme oxygenase-1, via a SFK-JNK and p38-nuclear factor kappa B signaling pathway. Further, activation of this signaling was also found to regulate release of inflammatory cytokines, including interleukin-6 and interleukin-8, demonstrating the inflammatory potential of LDH-NP.

Tissue distribution and excretion kinetics of orally administered silica nanoparticles in rats.

PURPOSE: The effects of particle size on the tissue distribution and excretion kinetics of silica nanoparticles and their biological fates were investigated following a single oral administration to male and female rats. METHODS: Silica nanoparticles of two different sizes (20 nm and 100 nm) were orally administered to male and female rats, respectively. Tissue distribution kinetics, excretion profiles, and fates in tissues were analyzed using elemental analysis and transmission electron microscopy. RESULTS: The differently sized silica nanoparticles mainly distributed to kidneys and liver for 3 days post-administration and, to some extent, to lungs and spleen for 2 days post-administration, regardless of particle size or sex. Transmission electron microscopy and energy dispersive spectroscopy studies in tissues demonstrated almost intact particles in liver, but partially decomposed particles with an irregular morphology were found in kidneys, especially in rats that had been administered 20 nm nanoparticles. Size-dependent excretion kinetics were apparent and the smaller 20 nm particles were found to be more rapidly eliminated than the larger 100 nm particles. Elimination profiles showed 7%-8% of silica nanoparticles were excreted via urine, but most nanoparticles were excreted via feces, regardless of particle size or sex. CONCLUSION: The kidneys, liver, lungs, and spleen were found to be the target organs of orally-administered silica nanoparticles in rats, and this organ distribution was not affected by particle size or animal sex. In vivo, silica nanoparticles were found to retain their particulate form, although more decomposition was observed in kidneys, especially for 20 nm particles. Urinary and fecal excretion pathways were determined to play roles in the elimination of silica nanoparticles, but 20 nm particles were secreted more rapidly, presumably because they are more easily decomposed. These findings will be of interest to those seeking to predict potential toxicological effects of silica nanoparticles on target organs.

Modulation of the pharmacokinetics of zinc oxide nanoparticles and their fates in vivo.

In the present study, the effects of particle size (20 nm or 70 nm) and surface charge (negative or positive) on the pharmacokinetics, tissue distributions, and excretion of ZnO nanoparticles were examined following the administration of a single oral dose to rats. Pharmacokinetic profiles and biodistributions were not affected by particle size or gender. However, ZnO (-) particles were markedly more absorbed by the systemic circulation than ZnO (+) particles. Furthermore, the kinetic behaviors of ZnO nanoparticles differed from those of zinc ions, as evidenced by the low dissolution (13-14%) of ZnO nanoparticles under gastric conditions. The kidneys, liver, and lungs were found to be target organs. However, the major biological fate of ZnO nanoparticles in tissues was the ionic form, not the particulate form, and this was independent of exposure routes (oral and intravenous). Particle size was only found to affect excretion kinetics, and 20 nm particles were more rapidly eliminated. Most nanoparticles were excreted via the biliary and fecal routes, but a small amount of the nanoparticles was excreted via urine. The study shows that surface charge, rather than particle size or gender, is the critical modulator of the pharmacokinetic behavior of ZnO nanoparticles.