ABSTRACT
Trans-cinnamaldehyde (CA) and its analogs 2-hydroxycinnamaldehyde and 2-benzoyloxycinnamaldehyde have been reported to possess antitumor activity. CA is also a known Nrf2 activator. In this study, a series of ortho-substituted cinnamaldehyde analogs was synthesized and screened for antiproliferative and thioredoxin reductase (TrxR)-inhibitory activities. Whereas CA was weakly cytotoxic and TrxR inhibiting, hydroxy and benzoyloxy substitutions resulted in analogs with enhanced antiproliferative activity paralleling increased potency in TrxR inactivation. A novel analog, 5-fluoro-2-hydroxycinnamaldehyde, was identified as exhibiting the strongest antitumor effect (GI(50) 1.6 microM in HCT 116 cells) and TrxR inhibition (IC(50) 7 microM, 1 h incubation with recombinant TrxR). CA and its 2-hydroxy- and 2-benzoyloxy-substituted analogs possessed dual TrxR-inhibitory and Nrf2-inducing effects, both attributed to an active Michael acceptor pharmacophore. At lethal concentrations, TrxR-inhibitory potencies correlated with the compounds' antiproliferative activities. The penultimate C-terminal selenocysteine residue was shown to be a possible target. Conversely, at sublethal concentrations, these agents induced an adaptive antioxidant response through Nrf2-mediated upregulation of phase II enzymes, including TrxR induction. We conclude from the results obtained that TrxR inactivation contributes at least partly to cinnamaldehyde cytotoxicity. These Michael acceptor molecules can potentially be exploited for use in different concentrations in chemotherapeutic and chemopreventive strategies.
Subject(s)
Acrolein/analogs & derivatives , Antineoplastic Agents/pharmacology , NF-E2-Related Factor 2/metabolism , Thioredoxin-Disulfide Reductase/antagonists & inhibitors , Acrolein/chemical synthesis , Acrolein/chemistry , Acrolein/pharmacology , Antineoplastic Agents/chemical synthesis , Antineoplastic Agents/chemistry , Antioxidants/metabolism , Apoptosis/drug effects , Cell Proliferation/drug effects , Drug Screening Assays, Antitumor , Humans , Stereoisomerism , Thioredoxin-Disulfide Reductase/metabolism , Time Factors , Tumor Cells, CulturedABSTRACT
The natural product 2'-hydroxycinnamaldehyde (HCA) and its analogue, 2'-benzoyloxycinnamaldehyde (BCA), have been previously shown to have antiproliferative and proapoptotic effects in vitro and inhibit tumor growth in vivo. In this study, we use structure-activity analysis to define structural features that are important for the activity of cinnamaldehyde analogues. Our results emphasize an important role for both the propenal group as well as the modification at the 2'-position. Further studies were aimed to characterize the mechanism of action of BCA. Exposure to BCA induced cell death via caspase-dependent and -independent pathways. Cell death was not due to autophagy or necrosis as a result of energy depletion or induction of reactive oxygen species. Our findings have important implications for future drug design and highlight the importance of defining molecular drug targets for this promising class of potential anticancer agents.
