Supplementation of Acacia dealbata versus Acacia mearnsii leaf-meal has potential to maintain growth performance of lambs grazing low-quality communal rangelands in South Africa.

Supplementing livestock grazing communal rangelands with leaf-meals from Acacia trees, which are currently considered as problematic invasive alien plants globally, may be a sustainable way of exploiting their desirable nutritional and anthelmintic properties. The current study evaluated worm burdens and growth performance of lambs grazing low-quality communal rangelands supplemented with leaf-meals prepared from the invasive alien plant species; Acacia mearnsii or A. dealbata. Forty, three-month-old ewe lambs weighing an average of 18.9 ± 0.60 kg were randomly allocated to four supplementary diets: (1) rangeland hay only (control), (2) commercial protein supplement plus rangeland hay, (3) A. mearnsii leaf-meal plus rangeland hay and (4) A. dealbata leaf-meal plus rangeland hay. All the supplementary diets were formulated to meet the lambs' minimum maintenance requirements for protein. All the lambs were grazed on communal rangelands daily from 0800 to 1400 after which they were penned to allow them access to their respective supplementary diets until 08:00 the following morning. The respective supplementary diets were offered at the rate of 400 g ewe- 1 day- 1 for 60 days. Lambs fed the commercial protein supplement had the highest dry matter intake followed by those fed the Acacia leaf-meals and the control diet, respectively (P ≤ 0.05). Relative to the other supplementary diets, lambs fed the commercial protein supplement and A. dealbata leaf-meal had higher (P ≤ 0.05) final body weight and average daily gains. Dietary supplementation did not affect lamb faecal worm egg counts over the study period (P > 0.05). There was no association between supplementary diets and lamb FAMACHA© scores (P > 0.05). It was concluded that supplementation of Acacia dealbata versus Acacia mearnsii has the potential to emulate commercial protein in maintaining growth performance of lambs grazing communal rangelands in the dry season.

Macular optical coherence tomography for screening of pathology prior to cataract surgery: An approach based on tele-evaluation.

BACKGROUND: To assess the benefit of macular spectral-domain optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT) as a part of the routinary preoperative study of patients undergoing cataract surgery. METHODS: A prospective single-center study study was performed. Consecutive patients with normal biomicroscopic funduscopy, moderate cataract and no history of ophthalmological pathologies were enrolled. All patients underwent macular SD-OCT. The obtained images were analysed by a general ophthalmologist and two retina specialists. Incidence of macular pathology and its relation to age and comorbidities were assessed. RESULTS: Eight-hundred and thirty-six eyes of 419 patients were enrolled in this study. All images were analysed telematically by a general ophthalmologist. Forty-nine eyes were excluded due to insufficient quality of the obtained images. Abnormal images were observed in 156 eyes (18.6%), including age-related macular degeneration in 68 (8.2%), epiretinal membrane (ERM) in 67 (8.0%), cystoid macular edema in 3 eyes (0.4%), among others. Diagnostics with severe impact on patient visual prognosis were observed in 16 eyes (3.82%) from 12 patients. The relationship between incidence of macular pathologies and age or comorbidities was not statistically significant. To assess accuracy of the first observer, images were subsequently analysed by two retinologists. The kappa index of concordance was 0.80 and 0.85. CONCLUSIONS: Implementing a systematic macular SD-OCT as a preoperative test prior to cataract surgery would improve quality of postoperative visual prognosis information. A general ophthalmologist would be suitable to screen for pathology through macular OCT images.

Snaps of a tiny amphipod push the boundary of ultrafast, repeatable movement.

Surprisingly, the fastest motions are not produced by large animals or robots. Rather, small organisms or structures, including cnidarian stinging cells, fungal shooting spores, and mandible strikes of ants, termites, and spiders, hold the world acceleration records.1-5 These diverse systems share common features: they rapidly convert potential energy - stored in deformed material or fluid - into kinetic energy when a latch is released.4-6 However, the fastest of these are not repeatable, because mechanical components are broken or ejected.5,6 Furthermore, some of these systems must overcome the added challenge of moving in water, where high density and viscosity constrain acceleration at small sizes. Here we report the kinematics of repeatable, ultrafast snaps by tiny marine amphipods (Dulichiella cf. appendiculata). Males use their enlarged major claw, which can exceed 30% of body mass, to snap a 1 mm-long dactyl with a diameter equivalent to a human hair (184 µm). The claw snaps closed extremely rapidly, averaging 93 µs, 17 m s-1, and 2.4 x 105 m s-2. These snaps are among the smallest and fastest of any documented repeatable movement, and are sufficiently fast to operate in the inertial hydrodynamic regime (Reynolds number (Re) >10,000). They generate audible pops and rapid water jets, which occasionally yield cavitation, and may be used for defense. These amphipod snaps push the boundaries of acceleration and size for repeatable movements, particularly in water, and exemplify how new biomechanical insights can arise from unassuming animals. VIDEO ABSTRACT.

Exceptional preservation of mid-Cretaceous marine arthropods and the evolution of novel forms via heterochrony.

Evolutionary origins of novel forms are often obscure because early and transitional fossils tend to be rare, poorly preserved, or lack proper phylogenetic contexts. We describe a new, exceptionally preserved enigmatic crab from the mid-Cretaceous of Colombia and the United States, whose completeness illuminates the early disparity of the group and the origins of novel forms. Its large and unprotected compound eyes, small fusiform body, and leg-like mouthparts suggest larval trait retention into adulthood via heterochronic development (pedomorphosis), while its large oar-like legs represent the earliest known adaptations in crabs for active swimming. Our phylogenetic analyses, including representatives of all major lineages of fossil and extant crabs, challenge conventional views of their evolution by revealing multiple convergent losses of a typical "crab-like" body plan since the Early Cretaceous. These parallel morphological transformations may be associated with repeated invasions of novel environments, including the pelagic/necto-benthic zone in this pedomorphic chimera crab.

Age differences in the purr call distinguished by units in the adult guinea pig primary auditory cortex.

Many communication calls contain information about the physical characteristics of the calling animal. During maturation of the guinea pig purr call the pitch becomes lower as the fundamental frequency progressively decreases from 476 to 261 Hz on average. Neurons in the primary auditory cortex (AI) often respond strongly to the purr and we postulated that some of them are capable of distinguishing between purr calls of different pitch. Consequently four pitch-shifted versions of a single call were used as stimuli. Many units in AI (79/182) responded to the purr call either with an onset response or with multiple bursts of firing that were time-locked to the phrases of the call. All had a characteristic frequency ≤5 kHz. Both types of unit altered their firing rate in response to pitch-shifted versions of the call. Of the responsive units, 41% (32/79) had a firing rate locked to the stimulus envelope that was at least 50% higher for one version of the call than any other. Some (14/32) had a preference that could be predicted from their frequency response area while others (18/32) were not predictable. We conclude that about 18% of stimulus-driven cells at the low-frequency end of AI are very sensitive to age-related changes in the purr call.

Location of cells giving phase-locked responses to pure tones in the primary auditory cortex.

Phase-locked responses to pure tones have previously been described in the primary auditory cortex (AI) of the guinea pig. They are interesting because they show that some cells may use a temporal code for representing sounds of 60-300 Hz rather than the rate or place mechanisms used over most of AI. Our previous study had shown that the phase-locked responses were grouped together, but it was not clear whether they were in separate minicolumns or a larger macrocolumn. We now show that the phase-locked cells are arranged in a macrocolumn within AI that forms a subdivision of the isofrequency bands. Phase-locked responses were recorded from 158 multiunits using silicon based multiprobes with four shanks. The phase-locked units gave the strongest response in layers III/IV but phase-locked units were also recorded in layers II, V and VI. The column included cells with characteristic frequencies of 80 Hz-1.3 kHz (0.5-0.8 mm long) and was about 0.5 mm wide. It was located at a constant position at the intersection of the coronal plane 1 mm caudal to bregma and the suture that forms the lateral edge of the parietal bone.

Neuronal spike-train responses in the presence of threshold noise.

The variability of neuronal firing has been an intense topic of study for many years. From a modelling perspective it has often been studied in conductance based spiking models with the use of additive or multiplicative noise terms to represent channel fluctuations or the stochastic nature of neurotransmitter release. Here we propose an alternative approach using a simple leaky integrate-and-fire model with a noisy threshold. Initially, we develop a mathematical treatment of the neuronal response to periodic forcing using tools from linear response theory and use this to highlight how a noisy threshold can enhance downstream signal reconstruction. We further develop a more general framework for understanding the responses to large amplitude forcing based on a calculation of first passage times. This is ideally suited to understanding stochastic mode-locking, for which we numerically determine the Arnol'd tongue structure. An examination of data from regularly firing stellate neurons within the ventral cochlear nucleus, responding to sinusoidally amplitude modulated pure tones, shows tongue structures consistent with these predictions and highlights that stochastic, as opposed to deterministic, mode-locking is utilised at the level of the single stellate cell to faithfully encode periodic stimuli.

Curious chiral cases of caddisfly larvae: handed behavior, asymmetric forms, evolutionary history.

Studies of right-left asymmetries have yielded valuable insights into the mechanisms of both development and evolution. Larvae from several groups of caddisflies (Trichoptera) build portable asymmetrical cases within which they live. In nearly all species that build spiral-walled tubular cases, the direction of wall coiling is random (equal numbers of dextral and sinistral cases within species) whereas in all species that build helicospiral, snail-like cases the direction of coiling is exclusively dextral. Asymmetrical tubes result from handed behavior, and ∼20% of larvae removed from a spiral-walled, tubular case build a replacement case of opposite chirality. So handed behavior (and hence direction of tube-wall spiraling) is likely learned rather than determined genetically. Asymmetrical larval cases appear to have evolved at least seven times in the Trichoptera, five times as spiral-walled tubes and twice as snail-like helicospiral cases. Helicospiral cases may reduce vulnerability to predation by mimicking snail shells, whereas spiral arrangements of vegetation fragments in tube walls may be more robust mechanically than other arrangements, but experimental evidence is lacking. Within one family (Phryganeidae), one or perhaps two species exhibit an excess of sinistral-walled cases, suggesting that genes that bias handed behavior in a particular direction evolved after handed behaviors already existed (genetic assimilation).

Functional subdivisions in low-frequency primary auditory cortex (AI).

We wished to test the hypothesis that there are modules in low-frequency AI that can be identified by their responsiveness to communication calls or particular regions of space. Units were recorded in anaesthetised guinea pig AI and stimulated with conspecific vocalizations and a virtual motion stimulus (binaural beats) presented via a closed sound system. Recording tracks were mainly oriented orthogonally to the cortical surface. Some of these contained units that were all time-locked to the structure of the chutter call (14/22 tracks) and/or the purr call (12/22 tracks) and/or that had a preference for stimuli from a particular region of space (8/20 tracks with four contralateral, two ipsilateral and two midline), or where there was a strong asymmetry in the response to beats of different direction (two tracks). We conclude that about half of low-frequency AI is organized into modules that are consistent with separate "what" and "where" pathways.

Laminar differences in the response properties of cells in the primary auditory cortex.

In visual and somatosensory cortex there are important functional differences between layers. Although it is difficult to identify laminar borders in the primary auditory cortex (AI) laminar differences in functional processing are still present. We have used electrodes inserted orthogonal to the cortical surface to compare the response properties of cells in all six layers of AI in anaesthetised guinea pigs. Cells were stimulated with short tone pips and two conspecific vocalizations. When frequency response areas were measured for 248 units the tuning bandwidth was broader for units in the deep layers. The mean Q (10) value for tuning in layers IV-VI was significantly smaller (Mann-Whitney test P < 0.001) than for layers I-III. When response latencies were measured, the shortest latencies were found in layer V and the mean latency in this layer was shorter than in any of the more superficial layers (I-IV) when compared with a Tukey analysis of variance (P < 0.005). There were also laminar differences in the best threshold with layer V having the highest mean value. The mean best threshold for layer V (32.7 dB SPL) was significantly different from the means for layers II (25.5 dB SPL) and III (26.3 dB SPL). The responses to two vocalizations also varied between layers: the response to the first phrase of a chutter was smaller and about 10 ms later in the deep layers than in layers II and III. By contrast, the response to an example of whistle was stronger in the deep layers. These results are consistent with a model of AI that involves separate inputs to different layers and descending outputs from layers V/VI (to thalamus and brainstem) that are different from the output from layers II/III (to ipsilateral cortex).

Identification of subdivisions in the medial geniculate body of the guinea pig.

The accurate and reliable identification of subdivisions within the auditory thalamus is important for future studies of this nucleus. However, in the guinea pig, there has been no agreement on the number or nomenclature of subdivisions within the main nucleus of the auditory thalamus, the medial geniculate body (MGB). Thus, we assessed three staining methods in the guinea pig MGB and concluded that cytochrome oxidase (CYO) histochemistry provides a clear and reliable method for defining MGB subdivisions. By combining CYO with acetylcholinesterase staining and extensive physiological mapping we defined five separate divisions, all of which respond to auditory stimuli. Coronal sections stained for CYO revealed a moderate to darkly-stained oval core. This area (the ventral MGB) contained a high proportion (61%) of V-shaped tuning curves and a tonotopic organisation of characteristic frequencies. It was surrounded by four smaller areas that contained darkly stained somata but had a paler neuropil. These areas, the dorsolateral and suprageniculate (which together form the dorsal MGB), the medial MGB and the shell MGB, did not have any discernable tonotopic frequency gradient and contained a smaller proportion of V-shaped tuning curves. This suggests that CYO permits the identification of core and belt areas within the guinea pig MGB.

Some investigations into non-passive listening.

Our knowledge of the function of the auditory nervous system is based upon a wealth of data obtained, for the most part, in anaesthetised animals. More recently, it has been generally acknowledged that factors such as attention profoundly modulate the activity of sensory systems and this can take place at many levels of processing. Imaging studies, in particular, have revealed the greater activation of auditory areas and areas outside of sensory processing areas when attending to a stimulus. We present here a brief review of the consequences of such non-passive listening and go on to describe some of the experiments we are conducting to investigate them. In imaging studies, using fMRI, we can demonstrate the activation of attention networks that are non-specific to the sensory modality as well as greater and different activation of the areas of the supra-temporal plane that includes primary and secondary auditory areas. The profuse descending connections of the auditory system seem likely to be part of the mechanisms subserving attention to sound. These are generally thought to be largely inactivated by anaesthesia. However, we have been able to demonstrate that even in an anaesthetised preparation, removing the descending control from the cortex leads to quite profound changes in the temporal patterns of activation by sounds in thalamus and inferior colliculus. Some of these effects seem to be specific to the ear of stimulation and affect interaural processing. To bridge these observations we are developing an awake behaving preparation involving freely moving animals in which it will be possible to investigate the effects of consciousness (by contrasting awake and anaesthetized), passive and active listening.

Evidence for a direct, short latency projection from the dorsal cochlear nucleus to the auditory thalamus in the guinea pig.

The auditory thalamus (medial geniculate body, MGB) receives its main ascending input from the inferior colliculus (IC), which was considered to be an obligatory relay for all auditory inputs to the MGB. However, recent anatomical evidence in the rat [ (Malmierca et al. 2002) J. Neurosci., 22, 10891-10897] has confirmed the presence of a direct pathway from the dorsal cochlear nucleus (DCN) to the medial MGB, bypassing the IC, as previously suggested in the chimpanzee [ (Strominger et al. 1977) J. Comp. Neurol., 172, 349-366]. We show that this direct pathway is also present in the guinea pig and apparently results in short latency responses in the thalamus. Injection of anterograde tracer into the DCN of five adult guinea pigs revealed terminal boutons and axonal swellings distributed throughout the medial MGB, but absent from all other MGB subdivisions. Electrophysiological recordings made from 39 adult guinea pigs (24 male & 15 female) showed neurons in the medial MGB responded with significantly shorter latencies to acoustic clicks (7.8 ms) than those from the ventral (11.0 ms), dorsal (14.4 ms), or shell (16.5 ms) MGB, consistent with the direct pathway from the DCN. The function of the direct pathway is not known but may be related to the fast responses and the role of the medial MGB in integrating combined somatosensory and auditory inputs. Short latency responses may be important in priming the auditory cortex to prepare it for rapid analysis and in recruiting the amygdala for rapid emotional responses such as fear.

Morphology of physiologically characterised ventral cochlear nucleus stellate cells.

Stellate cells within the ventral cochlear nucleus (VCN) are a diverse cell group that have been classified according to their size and morphology. Some of these stellate cell types constitute major projection neurones into the brainstem and directly into the inferior colliculus, while others are implicated in more local processing. It is still not clear whether a specific physiological profile is uniquely associated with each distinct type of stellate cell. To investigate such associations, we have analysed 23 units with a battery of physiological stimuli in vivo and then examined their shape and outputs following juxtacellular labelling with biocytin. Five physiologically identified groups of cells were filled. These formed two major response classes: onset cells and chopper cells. The two classes could be separated purely on morphological grounds. The onset cells had large somata, large symmetrical dendritic trees and profuse axonal branches that were restricted to the cochlear nucleus on one (On-L) or both sides (On-C) of the brainstem. The chopper cells had smaller, asymmetric, dendritic trees, which were either planar or marginal, had smaller somata and an output axon that left via the trapezoid body. We have confirmed profuse projections into the dorsal cochlear nucleus from all onset cells, and more focal projections from some members of all three groups of chopper cells.

The ability of inferior colliculus neurons to signal differences in interaural delay.

Sound localization in humans depends largely on interaural time delay (ITD). The ability to discriminate differences in ITD is highly accurate. ITD discrimination (Delta ITD) thresholds, under some circumstances, are as low as 10-20 micros. It has been assumed that thresholds this low could only be obtained if the outputs from many neurons were combined. Here we use Receiver Operating Characteristic analysis to compute neuronal Delta ITD thresholds from 53 cells in the inferior colliculus in guinea pigs. The Delta ITD thresholds of single neurons range from several hundreds of micros down to 20-30 micros. The lowest single-cell thresholds are comparable to human thresholds determined with similar stimuli. This finding suggests that the highly accurate sound localization of human observers is consistent with the resolution of single cells and need not reflect the combined activity of many neurons.

Precise tuning of barnacle leg length to coastal wave action.

Both spatial and temporal variation in environmental conditions can favour intraspecific plasticity in animal form. But how precise is such environmental modulation? Individual Balanus glandula Darwin, a common northeastern Pacific barnacle, produce longer feeding legs in still water than in moving water. We report here that, on the west coast of Vancouver Island, Canada, the magnitude and the precision of this phenotypic variation is impressive. First, the feeding legs of barnacles from protected bays were nearly twice as long (for the same body mass) as those from open ocean shores. Second, leg length varied surprisingly precisely with wave exposure: the average maximum velocities of breaking waves recorded in situ explained 95.6-99.5% of the variation in average leg length observed over a threefold range of wave exposure. The decline in leg length with increasing wave action was less than predicted due to simple scaling, perhaps due to changes in leg shape or material properties. Nonetheless, the precision of this relationship reveals a remarkably close coupling between growth environment and adult form, and suggests that between-population differences in barnacle leg length may be used for estimating differences in average wave exposure easily and accurately in studies of coastal ecology.

Functional magnetic resonance imaging measurements of sound-level encoding in the absence of background scanner noise.

Effects of sound level on auditory cortical activation are seen in neuroimaging data. However, factors such as the cortical response to the intense ambient scanner noise and to the bandwidth of the acoustic stimuli will both confound precise quantification and interpretation of such sound-level effects. The present study used temporally "sparse" imaging to reduce effects of scanner noise. To achieve control for stimulus bandwidth, three schemes were compared for sound-level matching across bandwidth: component level, root-mean-square power and loudness. The calculation of the loudness match was based on the model reported by Moore and Glasberg [Acta Acust. 82, 335-345 (1996)]. Ten normally hearing volunteers were scanned using functional magnetic resonance imaging (tMRI) while listening to a 300-Hz tone presented at six different sound levels between 66 and 91 dB SPL and a harmonic-complex tone (F0= 186 Hz) presented at 65 and 85 dB SPL. This range of sound levels encompassed all three bases of sound-level matching. Activation in the superior temporal gyrus, induced by each of the eight tone conditions relative to a quiet baseline condition, was quantified as to extent and magnitude. Sound level had a small, but significant, effect on the extent of activation for the pure tone, but not for the harmonic-complex tone, while it had a significant effect on the response magnitude for both types of stimulus. Response magnitude increased linearly as a function of sound level for the full range of levels for the pure tone. The harmonic-complex tone produced greater activation than the pure tone, irrespective of the matching scheme for sound level, indicating that bandwidth had a greater effect on the pattern of auditory activation than sound level. Nevertheless, when the data were collapsed across stimulus class, extent and magnitude were significantly correlated with the loudness scale (measured in phons), but not with the intensity scale (measured in SPL). We therefore recommend the loudness formula as the most appropriate basis of matching sound level to control for loudness effects when cortical responses to other stimulus attributes, such as stimulus class, are the principal concern.

A neural code for low-frequency sound localization in mammals.

We report a systematic relationship between sound-frequency tuning and sensitivity to interaural time delays for neurons in the midbrain nucleus of the inferior colliculus; neurons with relatively low best frequencies (BFs) showed response peaks at long delays, whereas neurons with relatively high BFs showed response peaks at short delays. The consequence of this relationship is that the steepest region of the function relating discharge rate to interaural time delay (ITD) fell close to midline for all neurons irrespective of BF. These data provide support for a processing of the output of coincidence detectors subserving low-frequency sound localization in which the location of a sound source is determined by the activity in two broad, hemispheric spatial channels, rather than numerous channels tuned to discrete spatial positions.

Active control of the volume acquisition noise in functional magnetic resonance imaging: method and psychoacoustical evaluation.

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) provides a noninvasive tool for observing correlates of neural activity in the brain while a subject listens to sound. However, intense acoustic noise is generated in the process of capturing MR images. This noise stimulates the auditory nervous system, limiting the dynamic range available for displaying stimulus-driven activity. The noise is potentially damaging to hearing and is distracting for the subject. In an active noise control (ANC) system, a reference sample of a noise is processed to form a sound which adds destructively with the noise at the listener's ear. We describe an implementation of ANC in the electromagnetically hostile and physically compact MRI scanning environment. First, a prototype system was evaluated psychoacoustically in the laboratory, using the electrical drive to a noise-generating loudspeaker as the reference. This system produced 10-20 dB of subjective noise-reduction between 250 Hz and 1 kHz, and smaller amounts at higher frequencies. The system was modified to operate in a real MR scanner where the reference was obtained by recording the acoustic scanner noise. Objective reduction by 30-40 dB of the most intense component in scanner noises was realized between 500 Hz and 3500 Hz, and subjective reduction of 12 dB and 5 dB in tests at frequencies of 600 Hz and at 1.9 kHz, respectively. Although the benefit of ANC is limited by transmission paths to the cochlea other than air-conduction routes from the auditory meatus, ANC achieves worthwhile attenuation even in the frequency range of maximum bone conduction (1.5-2 kHz). ANC should, therefore, be generally useful during auditory fMRI.