Pooled Dosing and Efficacy Analysis of the Sufentanil Sublingual Tablet 30 mcg Across Demographic Subgroups for the Management of Moderate-to-Severe Acute Pain.

PURPOSE: To aid nurses in dosing sufentanil sublingual tablet (SST) 30 mcg administered via a single-dose applicator, dosing requirements and efficacy of SST 30 mcg were analyzed across age, sex, race, and body mass index subgroups. DESIGN: Patient characteristics were pooled from three postoperative studies (two placebo-controlled and one open-label) and one open-label emergency department study. Drug dosing and efficacy data were pooled from the postoperative studies. METHODS: Efficacy was assessed through summed pain intensity difference to baseline during 12 hours across subgroups. FINDINGS: Mean (standard deviation) drug doses administered from 0 to 12 hours was 3.9 (2.0) for SST 30 mcg and was less frequent for older (≥65 years) versus younger patients. The summed pain intensity difference to baseline during 12 hours was superior with SST 30 mcg versus placebo across all subgroups. CONCLUSIONS: SST 30 mcg is a sublingual opioid analgesic with efficacy across demographic subgroups.

Pooled Phase III safety analysis of sufentanil sublingual tablets for short-term treatment of moderate-to-severe acute pain.

Aim: To evaluate the pooled safety of sufentanil sublingual tablets (SSTs) administered at 30-mcg dose equivalents over ≤72 h for moderate-to-severe acute pain management in medically supervised settings. Patients & methods: Safety data from SST 30 mcg Phase III studies were pooled with an additional patient subset from studies in which two SST 15 mcg were self-administered within 20-25 min (30-mcg dose-equivalent). Results: Analyses included 804 patients. Median (range) SST 30-mcg dosing over 24 h was 7.0 (1-15) tablets. Adverse events (AEs) were experienced by 60.5% (SST) and 61.4% (placebo) and treatment-related AEs by 43.8% (SST) and 33.5% (placebo; 10.3% difference; 95% CI: 2.0-18.6) of patients. No dose-dependent increase in oxygen desaturation was observed with SST. Conclusion: SST was well-tolerated, with most AEs considered mild or moderate in severity.

Pharmacokinetic Properties of a Sufentanil Sublingual Tablet Intended to Treat Acute Pain.

BACKGROUND: Desirable product attributes for treatment of moderate-to-severe acute pain in many medically supervised settings are rapid onset and a route of administration not requiring intravenous access. The pharmacokinetic characteristics of sublingually administered tablets containing 15 or 30 µg of sufentanil are described. METHODS: Blood was sampled from healthy subjects (four studies, 122 subjects) and patients (seven studies, 944 patients). Studies in healthy subjects determined bioavailability, effect of inhibition of cytochrome P450 3A4, and the plasma concentration profile with single and hourly sublingual doses. Studies in patients evaluated effects of weight, age, sex, and organ impairment on apparent clearance. Noncompartmental and mixed-effect population methods were used. RESULTS: Bioavailability of a single sublingual tablet was 52%, decreasing to 35% with repeat dosing. Ketoconazole (CYP3A4 inhibitor) increased maximum plasma concentration 19% and increased the area under the curve 77%. After a single 30-µg dose, plasma concentrations reached the published sufentanil analgesic threshold (24 pg/ml) within 30 min, peaked at 1 h, and then decreased below therapeutic concentrations by ~3 h. With hourly administration, plasma concentrations plateaued by the fifth dose. Time for concentrations to decrease 50% from maximal values was similar after 1 dose (2.5 ± 0.85 h) and 12 doses (2.5 ± 0.72 h). Clearance increased with weight, decreased with age, and was not affected by renal or hepatic impairment. CONCLUSIONS: The time course of a single 30-µg dose was consistent with onset of analgesia and redosing frequency observed in clinical trials. Sublingual sufentanil tablets provide the opportunity to noninvasively and rapidly treat moderate-to-severe pain in a monitored setting.

Sufentanil sublingual tablet 30mcg for moderate-to-severe acute pain in the ED.

BACKGROUND: Pharmacological properties of the sufentanil sublingual tablet 30mcg (SST 30mcg) could offer potential analgesic advantages in settings requiring noninvasive, acute pain management. The feasibility of using SST 30mcg for moderate-to-severe pain management in the emergency department (ED) was evaluated. METHODS: This open-label, multicenter feasibility study included patients aged ≥18years who presented to the ED with moderate-to-severe pain (≥4 on the numeric rating scale of pain intensity (NRS); opioid-tolerant patients were excluded. Patients received a single SST 30-mcg dose (single-dose cohort) or, upon request, ≤3 additional doses ≥60min apart (multiple-dose cohort) and were evaluated over 1 or 2h. Effectiveness was assessed by patient-reported pain scores (11-point NRS; 5-point pain relief scale). Safety and tolerability were also assessed. RESULTS: Overall, 76 patients enrolled into the single-dose (n=40) and multiple-dose (n=36) cohorts. In the first hour (combined cohorts), mean pain intensity was significantly lower 15-min post-dosing (P<0.001; clinically meaningful within 30-minutes post-dosing) and continued to decrease during the first hour (P<0.001 for each 15-minute interval). Mean pain intensity (multiple-dose cohort) decreased from 7.6 at baseline to 4.5 at 1h and to 4.6 at 2h (P<0.001 for both); mean pain relief increased from baseline to 1.9 at 1h (P<0.001) and to 2.0 at 2h (P<0.001). Most (79%) patients had no adverse events (AEs), and there were no severe AEs. CONCLUSIONS: SST 30mcg was feasible for managing moderate-to-severe acute pain in an ED setting.

An Open-Label Study of Sufentanil Sublingual Tablet 30 Mcg in Patients with Postoperative Pain.

Objective: To evaluate sufentanil sublingual tablet 30 mcg (SST 30 mcg) for postoperative pain in an older patient population with comorbidities. Design: Multicenter, open-label, single-arm study. Setting: Nine hospitals across the United States. Subjects: Adults aged ≥40 years who had undergone a surgical procedure. Methods: Patients with a postoperative pain intensity score ≥4 on an 11-point numeric rating scale (NRS) were allowed to enter the study and receive SST 30 mcg as requested for pain (minimum 60-minute redosing interval) over the 12-hour study period. Efficacy was assessed by patient reports of pain intensity on the NRS and a five-point pain relief scale. Safety was monitored throughout the study; plasma sufentanil concentrations were also measured. The primary efficacy endpoint was the time-weighted summed pain intensity difference (SPID) to baseline over 12 hours (SPID12). Results: Of the 140 patients enrolled, 69% were American Society of Anesthesiologists Physical Class II or III, 44% had a body mass index (BMI) ≥30 mg/kg2, and 29% had hepatic and/or renal impairment. Average age was 54.7 years (SD = 9.9 years), and average baseline pain intensity was 6.2 (SD = 1.9). The most common surgeries were abdominal (59%) and orthopedic (20%). The mean SPID12 was 36.0 (standard error of the mean = 2.2); mean scores were similar, regardless of age, sex, race, and BMI. From baseline, mean pain intensity decreased significantly starting 30 minutes postdose, and mean pain relief increased significantly starting 15 minutes postdose, remaining relatively stable through 12 hours (P < 0.001 at each time point). Four (3%) patients discontinued due to inadequate analgesia, and 45 (32%) patients had one or more adverse events that were considered possibly or probably related to the study drug. Mean plasma sufentanil concentrations were generally similar regardless of age, sex, BMI, or organ impairment status. Conclusions: SST 30 mcg was effective and well tolerated for the management of moderate-to-severe acute postoperative pain.

Cost of Intravenous Analgesia for the Management of Acute Pain in the Emergency Department is Substantial in the United States.

Background: Pain is a leading cause of admission to the emergency department (ED) and moderate-to-severe acute pain in medically supervised settings is often treated with intravenous (IV) opioids. With novel noninvasive analgesic products in development for this indication, it is important to assess the costs associated with IV administration of opioids. Materials and Methods: A retrospective observational study of data derived from the Premier database was conducted. All ED encounters of adult patients treated with IV opioids during a 2-year time period, who were charged for at least one IV opioid administration in the ED were included. Hospital reported costs were used to estimate the costs to administer IV opioids. Results: Over a 24 month-period, 7.3 million encounters, which included the administration of IV opioids took place in 614 US EDs. The mean cost per encounter of IV administration of an initial dose of the three most frequently prescribed opioids were: morphine $145, hydromorphone $146, and fentanyl $147. The main driver of the total costs is the cost of nursing time and equipment cost to set up and maintain an IV infusion ($140 ± 60). Adding a second dose of opioid, brings the average costs to $151-$154. If costs associated with the management of opioid-related adverse events and IV-related complications are also added, the total costs can amount to $269-$273. Of these 7.3 million encounters, 4.3 million (58%) did not lead to hospital admission of the patient and, therefore, the patient may have only required an IV catheter for opioid administration. Conclusions: IV opioid use in the ED is indicated for moderate-to-severe pain but is associated with significant costs. In subjects who are discharged from the ED and may not have required an IV for reasons other than opioid administration, rapid-onset analgesics for moderate-to-severe pain that do not require IV administration could lead to direct cost reductions and improved care.

Sufentanil Sublingual Tablet 30 mcg for the Management of Pain Following Abdominal Surgery: A Randomized, Placebo-Controlled, Phase-3 Study.

BACKGROUND: Results from a phase-3, prospective, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial evaluating sufentanil sublingual tablet 30 mcg (SST) for the management of pain after ambulatory abdominal surgery are presented. METHODS: Adults with American Society of Anesthesiologists status 1 to 3 scheduled to undergo abdominoplasty, open tension-free inguinal hernioplasty, or laparoscopic abdominal surgery under general or spinal anesthesia that did not include intrathecal opioids during the operation were eligible. Opioid-tolerant patients were excluded. The primary endpoint was the time-weighted summed pain intensity difference to baseline (SPID) over 12 hours. Secondary endpoints included SPID over 24 and 48 hours, total pain relief, and patient and healthcare professional (HCP) global assessments. RESULTS: Overall, 161 patients were randomized to SST (N = 107) or placebo (N = 54); pain scores were recorded for up to 48 hours. SPID 12 was higher (greater pain intensity reduction from baseline) in the SST group compared with placebo (25.8 vs. 13.1; P < 0.001, with a difference of 12.7 [95% confidence interval 7.16, 18.23]). In the SST group, a greater proportion of patients and HCPs responded "good" or "excellent" on the global assessments compared with placebo (P < 0.001 for both). There was a numerically, but not statistically, higher incidence of nausea and headache in the SST group. CONCLUSIONS: In patients following abdominal surgery in an ambulatory care setting, SST was an effective opioid analgesic in postoperative pain management. In addition, SST was well tolerated with mild-to-moderate side effects, similar to those found in placebo-treated patients.

Evolution of Patient-Controlled Analgesia: From Intravenous to Sublingual Treatment.

Opioid administration delivered intravenously (IV) by patient-controlled analgesia (PCA) devices has been an important development in addressing insufficient management of acute pain in the postsurgical setting. However, IV PCA has several disadvantages, including operator error, risk of patient exposure to analgesic gaps, IV line patency issues, and risk of catheter-related infection, all of which contribute to the total cost of care. Morphine, the most commonly used opioid in IV PCA, has a relatively slow onset of analgesia, which may leave patients with inadequate initial pain control and at risk of opioid dose-stacking. Sufentanil is an opioid with no major active metabolites and a rapid onset of analgesia. The sufentanil sublingual tablet system (SSTS) with a 20-minute lockout and other safety features is a novel noninvasive PCA system in development for on-demand relief of moderate to severe acute pain in the hospital setting. Data from phase 3 trials of the use of SSTS after elective major open abdominal and orthopedic surgery show that analgesia is rapidly achieved, with a longer mean interdosing interval compared with IV PCA morphine (81 vs 47 minutes) and a high level of patient and nurse satisfaction. These data suggest that SSTS may also aid in the avoidance of some of the pitfalls inherent with IV PCA, which may help reduce hospital costs associated with IV PCA-related issues. This article describes the evolution, benefits, issues, and costs associated with IV PCA and reviews data from preclinical studies of sufentanil through SSTS phase 3 trials.

Sufentanil Sublingual Tablet System for the Management of Postoperative Pain after Knee or Hip Arthroplasty: A Randomized, Placebo-controlled Study.

BACKGROUND: Complications with IV patient-controlled analgesia include programming errors, invasive access, and impairment of mobility. This study evaluated an investigational sufentanil sublingual tablet system (SSTS) for the management of pain after knee or hip arthroplasty. METHODS: This prospective, randomized, parallel-arm, double-blind study randomized postoperative patients at 34 U.S. sites to receive SSTS 15 µg (n = 315) or an identical placebo system (n = 104) and pain scores were recorded for up to 72 h. Adult patients with American Society of Anesthesiologists status 1 to 3 after primary total unilateral knee or hip replacement under general anesthesia or with spinal anesthesia that did not include intrathecal opioids were eligible. Patients were excluded if they were opioid tolerant. The primary endpoint was the time-weighted summed pain intensity difference to baseline over 48 h. Secondary endpoints included total pain relief, patient and healthcare professional global assessments, and patient and nurse ease-of-care questionnaires. RESULTS: Summed pain intensity difference (standard error) was higher (better) in the SSTS group compared with placebo (76 [7] vs. -11 [11], difference 88 [95% CI, 66 to 109]; P < 0.001). In the SSTS group, more patients and nurses responded "good" or "excellent" on the global assessments compared with placebo (P < 0.001). Patient and nurse ease-of-care ratings for the system were high in both groups. There was a higher incidence of nausea and pruritus in the SSTS group. CONCLUSION: SSTS could be an effective patient-controlled pain management modality in patients after major orthopedic surgery and is easy to use by both patients and healthcare professionals.

Sufentanil sublingual tablet system for the management of postoperative pain following open abdominal surgery: a randomized, placebo-controlled study.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: This study evaluates the efficacy and safety of a sufentanil sublingual tablet system (SSTS) for the management of postoperative pain following open abdominal surgery. METHODS: At 13 hospital sites in the United States, patients following surgery with pain intensity of greater than 4 on an 11-point numerical rating scale were randomized to receive SSTS dispensing a 15-µg sufentanil tablet sublingually with a 20-minute lockout or an identical system dispensing a placebo tablet sublingually. Pain intensity scores were recorded at baseline and for up to 72 hours after starting study drug. The primary end point was time-weighted summed pain intensity difference (SPID) over 48 hours. Secondary end points included SPID and total pain relief (TOTPAR) for up to 72 hours and patient and health care provider global assessments of the method of pain control. RESULTS: Summed pain intensity difference over 48 hours was significantly higher in the SSTS group than in the placebo group (least squares mean [SEM], 105.60 [10.14] vs 55.58 [13.11]; P = 0.001). Mean SPID and TOTPAR scores were significantly higher in the SSTS group at all time points from 1 hour (SPID) or 2 hours (TOTPAR) until 72 hours (P < 0.05). In the SSTS group, patient global assessment and health care provider global assessment ratings of good or excellent were greater than placebo at all time points (P < 0.01). Safety parameters, including adverse events and vital signs, were similar for SSTS and placebo. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that SSTS is effective and safe for the management of postoperative pain in patients following open abdominal surgery.

Pharmacokinetic properties of single- and repeated-dose sufentanil sublingual tablets in healthy volunteers.

PURPOSE: Sufentanil is a µ-opioid agonist with a high therapeutic index in preclinical studies and no active metabolites, and it is highly lipophilic, thereby enabling a transmucosal route of administration. Rapid distribution from the plasma after IV sufentanil administration results in a short duration of action requiring excessive repeated dosing if used for postoperative analgesia. The sufentanil sublingual tablet system (SSTS) is a handheld, preprogrammed, patient-controlled analgesia system designed to allow patients to self-administer sufentanil 15-µg tablets under their tongue with a 20-minute lockout. The pharmacokinetic (PK) characteristics of sufentanil, administered by different routes of delivery and after single and repeated sublingual (SL) administration, were examined in 2 studies. METHODS: A randomized, open-label, crossover study in healthy subjects evaluated the PK profile of sufentanil 15 µg administered by different routes: IV, SL, buccal (BU), and PO. A second open-label, crossover study in healthy subjects evaluated the PK parameters after single and repeated doses (full SSTS drug cartridge of 40 consecutive SL doses administered every 20 minutes) of a sufentanil 15-µg SL tablet. Doses were self-administered using the SSTS. FINDINGS: In the route of administration study (n = 25), mean Cmax values were highest with IV administration, and bioavailability values were: SL, 59%; BU, 78%; and PO, 9%. The absorption across the oral mucosa was associated with a median plasma half-time (time from Cmax to 50% of Cmax) that was 25-fold longer (2.5 hours) with SL versus IV administration (0.1 hours). In the single- and repeated-dose study (n = 38), mean AUC0-∞ was 125.5 h · pg/mL, and Cmax was 35.0 pg/mL, with a median Tmax of 0.8 hours after the administration of a single sufentanil SL tablet. With 40 consecutive doses, Cmax was 8-fold higher compared with that of a single dose, and steady state was achieved after the 13th dose. Median plasma half-time after the 40th dose was not statistically longer than that after a single dose (2.7 vs 2.2 hours, respectively), and the median Tmax was 0.3 hours after the last repeated dose. IMPLICATIONS: These study results support the viability of the SSTS for use in patient-controlled analgesia. The wide range of mean drug concentrations achieved after repeated dosing at 20-minute intervals compared with those with a single dose suggests the flexibility of patient-controlled dosing to meet individual analgesic requirements. The prolonged plasma half-time with SL administration is expected to provide a more appropriate duration of analgesia compared with that of IV administration, and the PK properties of repeated-dose administration support a 20-minute lockout interval.

A dose-finding study of sufentanil sublingual microtablets for the management of postoperative bunionectomy pain.

BACKGROUND: Sufentanil sublingual microtablets (SSMs) at a dose of 15 µg per tablet have been studied for postoperative patient-controlled analgesia with a 20-minute lockout via a bedside handheld system over 2 days to 3 days of use. For more short-term (<24 hours) management of acute moderate-to-severe pain, such as in the ambulatory surgical setting, a single, higher-strength SSM dose administered via a health care provider would be of benefit as it would require less frequent administration and avoid the setup of a drug delivery system. METHODS: This study was a two-center, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial for 12 hours in patients 18 years to 80 years of age who were undergoing bunionectomy alone or with hammertoe repair. Patients were randomly assigned at a 2:2:1 ratio to treatment with SSM 20 µg, SSM 30 µg, or placebo. The primary endpoint was time-weighted summed pain intensity difference to baseline over 12 hours (SPID12). Patients had to have a pain intensity score of 4 or higher just before initial microtablet dosing. Additional doses were administered when requested by the patient, with a minimum redosing interval of 1 hour. RESULTS: One hundred patients were randomized and received study drug. The SSM 30 µg was superior in the treatment of postbunionectomy surgical pain compared with placebo as demonstrated by the SPID12 score (6.53 vs. -7.12, respectively; p = 0.003) as well as all other secondary efficacy end points. The SSM 20-µg dosage strength was not superior to placebo for primary or secondary efficacy measures. Adverse events were similar among the three groups with the exception of nausea, vomiting, and somnolence, which demonstrated a dose-dependent increase in occurrence. CONCLUSION: The SSM 30 µg may be an effective, noninvasive alternative to health care provider-administered intravenous, intramuscular, or oral opioids for the management of moderate-to-severe acute pain. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Therapeutic study, level I.

Sufentanil sublingual tablet system vs. intravenous patient-controlled analgesia with morphine for postoperative pain control: a randomized, active-comparator trial.

BACKGROUND: Problems with intravenous patient-controlled analgesia (IV PCA) are well known, including invasive route of delivery and pump programming errors. The primary objective of this study was to evaluate patient satisfaction with a novel sublingual sufentanil PCA system (sufentanil sublingual tablet system 15 mcg with a 20-minute lockout interval; SSTS) to IV PCA morphine sulfate 1 mg with a 6-minute lockout interval (IV PCA MS) for the management of acute postoperative pain. METHODS: This was a randomized, open-label, 48-hour non-inferiority study with optional extension to 72 hours at 26 U.S. sites enrolling patients scheduled for elective major open abdominal or orthopedic (hip or knee replacement) surgery. The primary outcome measure was the proportion of patients who responded "good" or "excellent" (collectively "success") at the 48-hour timepoint on the Patient Global Assessment of method of pain control (PGA48). RESULTS: A total of 357 patients received study drug and 78.5% vs. 65.6% of patients achieved PGA48 "success" for SSTS vs. IV PCA MS, respectively, demonstrating non-inferiority (P < 0.001 using the one-side Z-test against the non-inferiority margin) as well as statistical superiority for treatment effect (P = 0.007). Patients using SSTS reported more rapid onset of analgesia and patient and nurse ease of care and satisfaction scores were higher than IV PCA MS. Adverse events were similar between the 2 groups; however, SSTS had fewer patients experiencing oxygen desaturations below 95% compared to IV PCA MS (P = 0.028). CONCLUSIONS: Sufentanil sublingual tablet system is a promising new analgesic technology that may address some of the concerns with IV PCA.

Novel delivery systems for postoperative analgesia.

Moderate-to-severe postoperative pain is usually controlled using a multimodal approach, including opioids. Intravenously administered patient-controlled analgesia (IV PCA) with opioids, popular for over 40 years, enables patients to control their level of analgesia and has advantages over a nurse-administered approach, including more satisfied patients and improved pain relief. Unfortunately, IV PCA has drawbacks such as device programming errors, medication prescribing errors, pump malfunction, limitations on patient mobility, IV patency issues, and transmission of infection. Furthermore, the setup of an infusion pump is often complex, time-consuming, and requires witnessed confirmation. Complicating IV PCA is the problem of commonly used compounds, morphine and hydromorphone, having significantly reduced brain/effector-site permeability and active metabolites, both of which create the risk of delayed adverse events. Novel patient-controlled modalities that incorporate rapid effector site-permeating opioids and non-invasive routes of administration offer great promise to enhance both patient and caregiver experiences with postoperative analgesia systems.

Abuse liability measures for use in analgesic clinical trials in patients with pain: IMMPACT recommendations.

Assessing and mitigating the abuse liability (AL) of analgesics is an urgent clinical and societal problem. Analgesics have traditionally been assessed in randomized clinical trials (RCTs) designed to demonstrate analgesic efficacy relative to placebo or an active comparator. In these trials, rigorous, prospectively designed assessment for AL is generally not performed. The Initiative on Methods, Measurement, and Pain Assessment in Clinical Trials (IMMPACT) convened a consensus meeting to review the available evidence and discuss methods for improving the assessment of the AL of analgesics in clinical trials in patients with pain. Recommendations for improved assessment include: (1) performing trials that include individuals with diverse risks of abuse; (2) improving the assessment of AL in clinical trials (eg, training study personnel in the principles of abuse and addiction behaviors, designing the trial to assess AL outcomes as primary or secondary outcome measures depending on the trial objectives); (3) performing standardized assessment of outcomes, including targeted observations by study personnel and using structured adverse events query forms that ask all subjects specifically for certain symptoms (such as euphoria and craving); and (4) collecting detailed information about events of potential concern (eg, unexpected urine drug testing results, loss of study medication, and dropping out of the trial). The authors also propose a research agenda for improving the assessment of AL in future trials.

Pharmacokinetics of sublingual sufentanil tablets and efficacy and safety in the management of postoperative pain.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: A sublingual sufentanil tablet is being developed as a potential alternative to intravenous (IV) opioids for the management of postoperative pain. The objective of these studies was to evaluate the pharmacokinetics, efficacy, and safety of sublingual sufentanil tablets for postoperative pain management. METHODS: The pharmacokinetics of sublingual sufentanil 10 and 80 µg were compared with IV sufentanil in 12 subjects in a phase 1 study. The safety and efficacy of sublingual sufentanil (5-15 µg) were evaluated in double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled phase 2 studies in patients undergoing knee replacement surgery (n = 101) or open abdominal (ABD) surgery (n = 94). The primary efficacy measurement was the summed pain intensity difference compared with baseline over 12 hours (SPID-12). RESULTS: Sublingual sufentanil pharmacokinetics were dose proportional following single doses of 10 and 80 µg. Plasma half-time (time from peak plasma concentration to 50% of peak concentration) was 80 to 90 minutes for sublingual sufentanil compared with 15 minutes or less for IV sufentanil. In the phase 2 studies, greater SPID-12 scores (ie, lower pain intensity) compared with placebo were observed for sublingual sufentanil 15 µg in the knee replacement study (P < 0.05) and for 10 and 15 µg in the ABD study (P < 0.01). All doses of sublingual sufentanil were well tolerated, and the incidence of adverse events was similar between the sublingual sufentanil and placebo groups. CONCLUSIONS: Sufentanil formulated as a sublingual solid dosage form provides a duration of action that allows effective analgesia for postoperative patients in a medically supervised setting.

Core outcome measures for opioid abuse liability laboratory assessment studies in humans: IMMPACT recommendations.

A critical component in development of opioid analgesics is assessment of their abuse liability (AL). Standardization of approaches and measures used in assessing AL have the potential to facilitate comparisons across studies, research laboratories, and drugs. The goal of this report is to provide consensus recommendations regarding core outcome measures for assessing the abuse potential of opioid medications in humans in a controlled laboratory setting. Although many of the recommended measures are appropriate for assessing the AL of medications from other drug classes, the focus here is on opioid medications because they present unique risks from both physiological (e.g., respiratory depression, physical dependence) and public health (e.g., individuals in pain) perspectives. A brief historical perspective on AL testing is provided, and those measures that can be considered primary and secondary outcomes and possible additional outcomes in AL assessment are then discussed. These outcome measures include the following: subjective effects (some of which comprise the primary outcome measures, including drug liking; physiological responses; drug self-administration behavior; and cognitive and psychomotor performance. Before presenting recommendations for standardized approaches and measures to be used in AL assessments, the appropriateness of using these measures in clinical trials with patients in pain is discussed.

Current and developing methods of patient-controlled analgesia.

Moderate-to-severe acute postoperative pain is commonly controlled with opioids administered via programmable intravenous (IV) patient-controlled analgesia (PCA) infusion pumps. Intravenously administered opioids provide effective relief of postoperative pain, and IV PCA enables patients to control their level of analgesia, which has advantages over nurse-administered approaches, including more satisfied patients and improved pain relief. Unfortunately, commonly used opioid analgesics can cause significant adverse effects. Furthermore, IV PCA has drawbacks, such as device programming errors, system errors, medication errors, limitations in patient mobility, and potential for IV tubing kinks, clogging, and transmission of infection. The IV route of administration is also characterized by a rapid, high peak in analgesic drug concentration followed by rapidly decreasing concentrations. Consequently, respiratory depression, excessive sedation, and inadequate pain control can occur. Furthermore, the technical assembly of an infusion pump is often complex and time-consuming. PCA modalities that incorporate superior opioid analgesics, such as sufentanil, and novel noninvasive routes of administration offer great promise for enhancing the patient and caregiver experience with the use of postoperative PCA.

Polyanalgesic Consensus Conference 2003: an update on the management of pain by intraspinal drug delivery-- report of an expert panel.

Intraspinal drug infusion using fully implantable pump and catheter systems is a safe and effective therapy for selected patients with chronic pain. The options for this approach are increasing, as drugs that are commercially available for systemic administration are adapted to this use and other drugs that are in development specifically for intraspinal administration become available. In 2000 a Polyanalgesic Consensus Conference was organized to evaluate the existing literature and develop guidelines for drug selection. The major outcome of this effort, an algorithm for drug selection, was based on the best available evidence at the time. Rapid changes have occurred in the science and practice of intraspinal infusion and a Polyanalgesic Consensus Conference 2003 was organized to pursue the following goals: 1) to review the literature on intraspinal drug infusion since 1999, 2) to revise the 2000 drug-selection algorithm, 3) to develop guidelines for optimizing drug dosage and concentration, 4) to create a process for documenting minimum evidence supporting the use of a drug for intraspinal infusion, and 5) to clarify issues pertaining to compounding of drugs. Based on the best available evidence and expert opinion, consensus recommendations were developed in all these areas. The panel's conclusions may provide a foundation for clinical practice and a rational basis for new research.

Local anesthetics differentially inhibit sympathetic neuron-mediated and C fiber-mediated synovial neurogenic plasma extravasation.

UNLABELLED: Local anesthetics are used for local irrigation after many types of operations. However, recent evidence of toxic effects of local anesthetics at large concentrations during continuous administration suggests an advantage of using decreased local anesthetic concentrations for irrigation solutions. In this study, we determined whether smaller concentrations of local anesthetics may maintain an antiinflammatory and, therefore, analgesic effect without the risk of possible toxicity. Lidocaine and bupivacaine were studied for their ability to inhibit both components of neurogenic inflammation-C fiber-mediated and sympathetic postganglionic neuron (SPGN)-mediated inflammation-in the rat knee joint. Intraarticular lidocaine 0.02% reduced 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT)-induced (SPGN-mediated) plasma extravasation (PE) by 35%, and further decreases were obtained by perfusing larger concentrations of lidocaine. Intraarticular bupivacaine 0.025% inhibited 5-HT-induced PE by 60%, and a 95% inhibition was obtained with bupivacaine 0.05%. Larger local anesthetic concentrations were necessary to inhibit C fiber-mediated PE than those required to inhibit SPGN-mediated PE. Lidocaine 0.4% was required to reduce mustard oil-induced PE by 60%. Lidocaine 2% inhibited mustard oil-induced PE to baseline levels. Bupivacaine 0.1% was required for an 80% reduction of PE. Bupivacaine 0.25% inhibited mustard oil-induced PE to baseline levels. Our results demonstrate differential effects of local anesthetics on SPGN- and C fiber-mediated PE but confirm the concept of using smaller concentrations of local anesthetics to achieve inhibition of postoperative inflammation. IMPLICATIONS: Local anesthetic wound irrigation is often used to treat postoperative surgical pain. Large concentrations of local anesthetics are usually used, and these concentrations may have possible neurotoxic and myotoxic effects. Our results demonstrate antiinflammatory effects of lidocaine and bupivacaine at concentrations smaller than used clinically.