Performance of Spodoptera litura (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) in responses to different amplitudes of alternating temperatures across permissive warm temperature regimes.

Climate change involves changes in the pattern of temperature fluctuations and the frequency and magnitude of thermal extremes. It is essential to investigate how insects respond to increased temperature variations, especially for species that usually experience diel temperature variations extending to thermal performance limits. To explicitly elucidate the effects of sizes of amplitudes of temperature variations, we used daily alternating temperatures with an equivalent mean of 28 °C to investigate the impact of different fluctuation amplitudes (±â€…0 °C,  ±â€…2 °C,  ±â€…4 °C, and  ±â€…6 °C) across permissive temperature regimes on the performance of Spodoptera litura FabriciusFabricius, a highly destructive polyphagous pest of crops and vegetables in tropical and temperate climates. Amplitudes of temperature fluctuations significantly affected developmental durations, adult life spans, pupal weights, fecundity, and fertility of S. litura. The survival rates from the egg stage to the adult eclosion did not differ significantly across different temperature treatments. The developmental durations of individual life cycles significantly increased with larger amplitudes in 3 fluctuating temperature treatments. The pupal weight was significantly lower and the adult life span was significantly shorter in the ±â€…6 °C treatment in all treatments. Fecundity and fertility were significantly reduced in the ±â€…6 °C treatment, making the continuation of generations nearly impossible. The results should provide critical information for understanding the ecology of this widespread pest under diel, seasonal, and global climate changes.

Corosolic acid inhibits metastatic response of human renal cell carcinoma cells by modulating ERK/MMP2 signaling.

Corosolic acid (CA), a plant-derived pentacyclic triterpenoid, has potent anti-inflammatory, anti-metabolic, and anti-neoplastic actions against a variety of human cancers. However, the specific mechanism by which CA inhibits the progression of renal cell carcinoma (RCC) is yet unclear. We found that CA (≤8 µM) had no influence on either the growth or viability of RCC cell lines (786-O, ACHN, and Caki-1) or normal HK2 cells. However, in a dose-dependent manner, CA prevented the invasion and migration of RCC cells. Human protease array analysis showed that CA reduced MMP2 expression. At increasing concentrations of CA, the expression of MMP2 was dose-dependently reduced, as shown by western blot and RT-PCR analyses as well as immunofluorescence staining. CA also stimulated ERK1/2 phosphorylation in 786-O and Caki-1 cells. Transfection of CA-treated RCC cells with siRNA-ERK restored MMP2 protein expression and the motility and invasion capabilities of RCC cells. Molecular docking study results showed that CA and MMP2 interact strongly. These findings elucidate the mechanism by which CA prevents RCC cells from migrating and invading, and these findings indicate that CA may be a potential anti-metastatic therapy for RCC.

Curcumin enhances p-cresyl sulfate-induced cytotoxic effects on renal tubular cells.

Indoxyl sulfate (IS) and p-cresyl sulfate (PCS), protein-bound uremic toxins, can induce oxidative stress and cause renal disease progression. However, the different cytotoxic effects on renal cells between IS and PCS are not stated. Due to uremic toxins are generally found in CKD patients, the mechanisms of uremic toxins-induced renal injury are required to study. Curcumin has anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic effects which may be potential used to protect against renal damage. In contrast, curcumin also exert cytotoxic effects on various cells. In addition, curcumin may reduce or enhance cytotoxicity combined with different chemicals treatments. However, whether curcumin may influence uremic toxins-induced renal injury is unclear. The goal of this study is to compare the different cytotoxic effects on renal cells between IS and PCS treatment, as well as the synergistic or antagonistic effects by combination treatments with curcumin and PCS. Our experimental result shows the PCS exerts a stronger antiproliferative effect on renal tubular cells than IS treatment. In addition, our study firstly demonstrates that curcumin enhances PCS-induced cell cytotoxicity through caspase-dependent apoptotic pathway and cell cycle alteration.

Analysis of EZH2 Genetic Variants on Triple-Negative Breast Cancer Susceptibility and Pathology.

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is the third most common female cancer in Taiwan. EZH2 plays an important role in cancer development through transcriptional repression by chromatin remodeling. However, the expression of EZH2 in breast cancer is highly correlated with tumorigenesis, and patient survival is not matched to TNBC. Furthermore, it has not been determined if specific EZH2 genetic variants are associated with breast cancer risk. In this paper, we evaluated the survival of different types of breast cancer. The results indicated that a lower expression of EZH2 led to poor survival of TNBC patients. Therefore, we aimed at studying the relationship between genetic polymorphisms of EZH2 and susceptibility to TNBC in Taiwan. Four single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) of EZH2 (rs6950683, rs2302427, rs3757441, and rs41277434) were analyzed by real-time PCR genotyping in 176 patients with TNBC and 1000 cancer-free controls. The results showed that TNBC patients under 60 years old who carried a TC or CC genotype at EZH2 rs6950683 and re3757441 had a tumor size of 20 mm or smaller (T1). Thus, this study is the first to examine the age and mutant genes associated with EZH2 SNPs in TNBC progression and development in Taiwan.

Approach to the Connection between Meconium Consistency and Adverse Neonatal Outcomes: A Retrospective Clinical Review and Prospective In Vitro Study.

Whether meconium-stained amniotic fluid (MSAF) serves as an indicator of fetal distress is under debate; however, the presence of MSAF concerns both obstetricians and pediatricians because meconium aspiration is a major contributor to neonatal morbidity and mortality, even with appropriate treatment. The present study suggested that thick meconium in infants might be associated with poor outcomes compared with thin meconium based on chart reviews. In addition, cell survival assays following the incubation of various meconium concentrations with monolayers of human epithelial and embryonic lung fibroblast cell lines were consistent with the results obtained from chart reviews. Exposure to meconium resulted in the significant release of nitrite from A549 and HEL299 cells. Medicinal agents, including dexamethasone, L-Nω-nitro-arginine methylester (L-NAME), and NS-398 significantly reduced the meconium-induced release of nitrite. These results support the hypothesis that thick meconium is a risk factor for neonates who require resuscitation, and inflammation appears to serve as the primary mechanism for meconium-associated lung injury. A better understanding of the relationship between nitrite and inflammation could result in the development of promising treatments for meconium aspiration syndrome (MAS).

Cetyltrimethylammonium Bromide Disrupts Mesenchymal Characteristics of Human Tongue Squamous Cell Carcinoma SCC4 Cells Through Modulating Canonical TGF-ß/Smad/miR-181b/TIMP3 Signaling Pathway.

BACKGROUND/AIM: This study investigated the anti-metastatic effects of cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) on tongue squamous cell carcinoma (TSCC) SCC4 cells. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Cell morphology, viability, cell cycle distribution, adhesion, migration, invasion and the expression levels of associated proteins were examined using microscopy, WST-1, wound-healing, Boyden chamber assays, and western blotting, respectively. RESULTS: CTAB significantly affected SCC4 cell morphology from spindle-shaped to cobblestone-shaped and resulted in loss of adherence. CTAB significantly inhibited cell adhesion, migration, and invasion of SCC4 cells, independent of cell viability. CTAB reduced expression of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) such as MMP3, MMP7, and MMP14 in a concentration-dependent manner, while it increased expression of tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinase 3 (TIMP3). In addition, CTAB reduced the phosphorylation of mothers against decapentaplegic homolog 2/3 (Smad2/3) proteins, which mediated CTAB-inhibited migration and invasion in SCC4 cells. These effects were reversed by TGF-ß1. CONCLUSION: CTAB attenuates the mesenchymal characteristics through upregulation of TIMP3 by inhibiting the canonical TGF-ß/Smad/miR-181b/TIMP3 signaling involved in extracellular matrix remodeling in SCC4 cells and might be a promising anti-metastatic therapeutic agent for TSCC.

Cetyltrimethylammonium Bromide Attenuates the Mesenchymal Characteristics of Hypopharyngeal Squamous Cell Carcinoma Through Inhibiting the EGFR/PI3K/AKT Signaling Pathway.

BACKGROUND/AIM: Cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB), a quaternary ammonium surfactant, was shown to have antitumor effects in a cellular mode of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC), modulating apoptotic and cytotoxic processes. However, the mechanisms by which CTAB exerts its effects against the epithelial- mesenchymal transition in HNSCC remain poorly understood. In the present study, we investigated whether CTAB inhibits cellular mobility and invasiveness of hypopharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma (HPSCC) cells. MATERIALS AND METHODS: WST-1, cell-cycle phase distribution, and wound healing, as well as transwell assays were conducted. Changes in protein expression patterns and related signaling pathways involved in effects of CTAB on HPSCC cell lines were evaluated by western blotting. RESULTS: Treatment of human HPSCC cell lines with CTAB significantly altered their morphology from spindle-like to cobblestone-like by diminishing mesenchymal-like phenotypic characteristics. CTAB also hindered cell functional properties, including migration and invasion, independently of cell viability. In addition, western blot results demonstrated that treatment with CTAB reduced expression of mesenchymal markers. Further investigation showed that CTAB treatment suppressed the phosphorylation of extracellular-regulated kinase 1/2, mechanistic target of rapamycin kinase and AKT serine/threonine kinase 1. CTAB also repressed the expression and phosphorylation levels of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate 3-kinase (PI3K), and the partial restoration of mesenchymal phenotype by EGF addition confirmed that CTAB inhibited migration and invasion in HPSCC cells by blocking the EGFR signaling pathway. CONCLUSION: Our results suggest that CTAB is involved in the suppression of EGFR-mediated mesenchymal phenotype and the molecular mechanism by which CTAB obstructs HPSCC cell metastasis may represent a promising strategy for use in HPSCC treatment.

Antioxidant vitamins promote anticancer effects on low-concentration methotrexate-treated glioblastoma cells via enhancing the caspase-3 death pathway.

Vitamin C and vitamin E are well-known antioxidant vitamins, both of which are also applied as adjunct treatments for cancer therapy. Methotrexate (MTX) is a clinical drug that is used widely for rheumatoid arthritis and cancer treatment. Human glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is an aggressive malignant brain tumor; the mean survival time for GBM patients is <2 years with traditional therapies. Developing and investigating novel treatments are important for clinical GBM therapy. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate whether combined treatment with vitamin C/E and MTX can display anticancer activities on GBM. Our studies showed that MTX displays anticancer effects on GBM in a dose-dependent manner, while vitamins C and E are not cytotoxic to glioblastoma. Importantly, this study showed that vitamins C and E can promote anticancer effects on low-concentration methotrexate-treated glioblastoma. Additionally, this study suggested that MTX alone or combined with vitamins C/E inhibits GBM cell growth via the caspase-3 death pathway.

Cetyltrimethylammonium Bromide Suppresses the Migration and Invasion of Hepatic Mahlavu Cells by Modulating Fibroblast Growth Factor Signaling.

BACKGROUND/AIM: Liver cancer is the fourth leading cause of cancer-related mortality globally, of which hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) accounts for 85-90% of total primary liver cancer. A drug shortage for HCC therapy triggered us to screen the small-molecule database with a high-throughput cellular screening system. Herein, we examined whether cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) inhibits cellular mobility and invasiveness of Mahlavu HCC cells. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The effects of CTAB on cell viability were assessed using WST-1 assay, cell-cycle distribution using flow cytometric analysis, migration/invasion using woundhealing and transwell assays, and associated protein levels using western blotting. RESULTS: Treatment of Mahlavu cells with CTAB transformed its mesenchymal spindle-like morphology. In addition, CTAB exerted inhibitory effects on the migration and invasion of Mahlavu cells dose-dependently. CTAB also reduced the protein levels of matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP2), MMP9, RAC family small GTPase 1, SNAIL family transcriptional repressor 1 (SNAI1), SNAI2, TWIST family basic helix-loop-helix transcription factor 1 (TWIST1), vimentin, N-cadherin, phospho-fibroblast growth factor (FGF) receptor, phospho-phosphoinositide 3-kinase, phospho-v-Akt murine thymoma viral oncogene and phospho-signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 but increased the protein levels of tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases-1/2 and E-cadherin. Rescue experiments proved that CTAB induced mesenchymal-epithelial transition in Mahlavu cells and this was significantly dose-dependently mitigated by basic FGF. CONCLUSION: CTAB suppressed the migration and invasion of Mahlavu cells through inhibition of the FGF signaling pathway. CTAB seems to be a potential agent for preventing metastasis of hepatic cancer.

Cetyltrimethylammonium Bromide Disrupts the Mesenchymal Characteristics of HA22T/VGH Cells Via Inactivation of c-Met/PI3K/Akt/mTOR Pathway.

BACKGROUND/AIM: Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) arises from hepatocytes, and is the most frequently occurring malignancy of primary liver cancer. In this study, we investigated the anti-metastatic effects of the quaternary ammonium compound, cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB), on HA22T/VGH HCC cells. MATERIALS AND METHODS: According to our preliminary data, the effect of CTAB on cell cycle distribution, migration, invasion and the associated protein levels was examined using flow cytometry, wound-healing migration, Matrigel transwell invasion assay and western blotting under sub-lethal concentrations. RESULTS: CTAB treatment of HA22T/VGH cells casued dose-dependent mesenchymal-epithelial transition (MET)-like changes and impaired migration and invasion capabilities. In addition, CTAB reduced the levels of metastasis-related proteins including c-Met, phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K), Akt, mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), ribosomal protein S6 kinase (p70S6K), Twist, N-cadherin, and Vimentin. Moreover, pretreatment with hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) rescued CTAB-mediated effects. CONCLUSION: CTAB exhibited potent anti-EMT and anti-metastatic activities through the inhibition of migration and invasion of HA22T/VGH cells. CTAB interrupted the mesenchymal characteristics of HA22T/VGH cells, which were significantly alleviated by HGF in a dose-dependent manner. CTAB has the potential to evolve as a therapeutic agent for HCC.

Myeloid Zinc Finger 1 (MZF1) Maintains the Mesenchymal Phenotype by Down-regulating IGF1R/p38 MAPK/ERα Signaling Pathway in High-level MZF1-expressing TNBC cells.

BACKGROUND/AIM: Signaling regulation of myeloid zinc finger 1 (MZF1) has been implicated in the progression of many human malignancies; however, the mechanistic action of MZF1 in triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) progression remains elusive. In this study, the aim was to investigate the molecular mechanisms of MZF1 and its functional role in TNBC cellular migration and invasion. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Hs578T and MDA-MB-231 cells were transfected to stably express the acidic domain of MZF1 (MZF160-72), or were transfected with MZF1-specific or ELK1-specific short hairpin RNA (shRNA). Changes in cell morphology and distributions of cellular proteins were observed and subsequently migration and invasion were measured by wound healing and transwell assays. Expression levels of epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT)-related genes were carried out using immunoblotting and quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) assays. Data of transcriptional regulation were obtained from promoter-luciferase reporter and chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assays. RESULTS: Herein, we found that MZF1 in high-level MZF1-expressing TNBC cells is associated with cell migration, invasion, and mesenchymal phenotype. MZF1 interacted with the promoter region of insulin-like growth factor 1 receptor (IGF1R) to drive invasion and metastasis of high-level MZF1-expressing TNBC cells. Exogenous expression of the acidic domain of MZF1 repressed the binding of endogenous MZF1 to IGF1R promoter via blocking the interaction with ETS-like gene 1 (ELK1). This blockage not only caused MZF1 protein degradation, but also restrained ELK1 nuclear localization in high-level MZF1-expressing TNBC cells. MZF1, but not ELK1, was necessary for the retention of mesenchymal phenotype by repressing IGF1R promoter activity in TNBC cells expressing high levels of MZF1. Activation of the IGF1R-driven p38MAPK-ERα-slug-E-cadherin signaling axis mediated the conversion of mesenchymal cell to epithelial phenotype, caused by MZF1 destabilization. These results suggest that MZF1 is an oncogenic inducer. CONCLUSION: Blocking of the MZF1/ELK1 interaction to reduce MZF1 protein stability by saturating the endogenous MZF1/ELK1 binding domains might be a promising therapeutic strategy for the treatment of high-level MZF1-expressing TNBC.

Cetrimonium Bromide Inhibits Cell Migration and Invasion of Human Hepatic SK-HEP-1 Cells Through Modulating the Canonical and Non-canonical TGF-ß Signaling Pathways.

BACKGROUND/AIM: Cetrimonium bromide (CTAB), a quaternary ammonium surfactant, is an antiseptic agent against bacteria and fungi. However, the mechanisms by which its pharmacological actions affect epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cells, such as adenocarcinoma in SK-HEP-1 cells, have not been investigated. We, thereby, investigated whether CTAB inhibits cellular mobility and invasiveness of human hepatic adenocarcinoma in SK-HEP-1 cells. MATERIALS AND METHODS: SK-HEP-1 cells were treated with CTAB, and subsequent migration and invasion were measured by wound healing and transwell assays. Protein expression was detected by immunoblotting analysis. RESULTS: Our data revealed that treatment of SK-HEP-1 cells with CTAB altered their mesenchymal spindle-like morphology. CTAB exerted inhibitory effects on the migration and invasion of SK-HEP-1 cells dose-dependently, and reduced protein levels of matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2), MMP-9, snail, slug, twist, vimentin, fibronectin, N-cadherin, Smad2, Smad3, Smad4, phosphoinositide-3-kinase (PI3K), p-PI3K, Akt, p-Akt, ß-catenin, mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), p-mTOR, p-p70S6K, p-extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERK)1/2, p-p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and p-c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), but increased protein levels of tissue inhibitor matrix metalloproteinase-1 (TIMP-1), TIMP-2, claudin-1 and p-GSK3ß. Based on these observations, we suggest that CTAB not only inhibits the canonical transforming growth factor-ß (TGF-ß) signaling pathway though reducing SMADs (an acronym from the fusion of Caenorhabditis elegans Sma genes and the Drosophila Mad, Mothers against decapentaplegic proteins), but also restrains the non-canonical TGF-ß signaling including MAPK pathways like ERK1/2, p38 MAPK, JNK and PI3K. CONCLUSION: CTAB is involved in the suppression of TGF-ß-mediated mesenchymal phenotype and could be a potent medical agent for use in controlling the migration and invasion of hepatic adenocarcinoma.

The uremic toxin p-cresyl sulfate induces proliferation and migration of clear cell renal cell carcinoma via microRNA-21/ HIF-1α axis signals.

p-Cresyl sulfate (pCS), a uremic toxin, can cause renal damage and dysfunction. Studies suggest that renal dysfunction increases the prevalence of renal cancer. However, the effect of pCS on the proliferation and migration of renal cancer is unclear. Clear cell renal cell carcinoma (ccRCC) expresses mutant von Hippel-Lindau gene and is difficult to treat. Hypoxia-inducible factor-1α and 2-α (HIF-1α and HIF-2α) as well as microRNA-21 (miR-21) can regulate the proliferation and migration of ccRCC cells. However, the association between HIF-α and miR-21 in ccRCC remains unclear. Therefore, the effects of pCS on ccRCC cells were investigated for HIF-α and miR-21 signals. Our results showed that pCS induced overexpression of HIF-1α and promoted the proliferation and regulated epithelial-mesenchymal transition-related proteins, including E-cadherin, fibronectin, twist and vimentin in ccRCC cells. pCS treatment increased miR-21 expression. Specifically, inhibition of miR-21 blocked pCS-induced proliferation and migration. Taken together, the present results demonstrate that pCS directly induced the proliferation and migration of ccRCC cells through mechanisms involving miR-21/HIF-1α signaling pathways.

Isochlorogenic Acid C Reverses Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition via Down-regulation of EGFR Pathway in MDA-MB-231 cells.

BACKGROUND/AIM: Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) has been suggested to play an important role in survival, proliferation, migration, differentiation, and tumorigenesis of many cell types. Breast cancer patients with high EGFR expression have a poor prognosis. In this study, we investigated the molecular mechanism of the inhibitory effect of isochlorogenic acid c (ICAC) extracted from Lonicera japonica on elevated EGFR levels of the triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) cell line, MDA-MB-231. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The cell viability and cell-cycle analysis were evaluated using 3-(4, 5-dimethyl-2-thiazolyl)-2, 5-diphenyl-2H-tetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay and flow cytometry, respectively. The migration ability and invasiveness of ICAC-treated MDA-MB-231 were examined by migration and Matrigel invasion assay. The epithelial-mesenchymal-transition (EMT)-related protein expression was examined by western blotting and reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). RESULTS: ICAC led to significant morphological changes and suppressed migration and invasion capacities of highly metastatic MDA-MB-231 cells. Western blot analysis for EGFR/EMT-associated proteins suggested that ICAC attenuated the mesenchymal traits as observed by up-regulation of epithelial markers and down-regulation of mesenchymal markers as well as decreased activities of matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9). CONCLUSION: These results suggested that the inhibitory effects of ICAC against EGFR-induced EMT and MDA-MB-231 cell invasion were dependent on the EGFR/ phospholipase Cγ (PLCγ)/extracellular regulated protein kinase ½ (ERK½)/slug signaling pathway. Therefore, the obtained results could provide us clues for the next therapeutic strategy in the treatment of TNBC.

Vitamin E (α­tocopherol) ameliorates aristolochic acid­induced renal tubular epithelial cell death by attenuating oxidative stress and caspase­3 activation.

Aristolochic acid (AA) is a component identified in traditional Chinese remedies for the treatment of arthritic pain, coughs and gastrointestinal symptoms. However, previous studies have indicated that AA can induce oxidative stress in renal cells leading to nephropathy. α­tocopherol exists in numerous types of food, such as nuts, and belongs to the vitamin E isoform family. It possesses antioxidant activities and has been used previously for clinical applications. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to determine whether α­tocopherol could reduce AA­induced oxidative stress and renal cell cytotoxicity, determined by cell survival rate, reactive oxygen species detection and apoptotic features. The results indicated that AA markedly induced H2O2 levels and caspase­3 activity in renal tubular epithelial cells. Notably, the presence of α­tocopherol inhibited AA­induced H2O2 and caspase­3 activity. The present study demonstrated that antioxidant mechanisms of α­tocopherol may be involved in the increased survival rates from AA­induced cell injury.

Vitamin C attenuates the toxic effect of aristolochic acid on renal tubular cells via decreasing oxidative stress­mediated cell death pathways.

Aristolochic acid (AA) is a component of Chinese medicinal herbs, including asarum and aristolochia and has been used in Traditional Chinese Medicine for a long time. Recent studies found that AA has a cytotoxic effect resulting in nephropathy. These studies indicated that AA­induced cytotoxicity is associated with increases in oxidative stress and caspase­3 activation. The present study further demonstrated that AA mainly elevates the H2O2 ratio, leading to increases in oxidative stress. Furthermore, the results indicated that AA induces cell death can via caspase­dependent and ­independent pathways. It is desirable to identify means of inhibiting AA­induced renal damage; therefore, the present study applied an anti­oxidative nutrient, vitamin C, to test whether it can be employed to reduce AA­induced cell cytotoxicity. The results showed that vitamin C decreased AA­induced H2O2 levels, caspase­3 activity and cytotoxicity in renal tubular cells. In conclusion, the present study was the first to demonstrate that AA­induced increases of the H2O2 ratio resulted in renal tubular cell death via caspase­dependent and ­independent pathways, and that vitamin C can decrease AA­induced increases in H2O2 levels and caspase­3 activity to attenuate AA­induced cell cytotoxicity.