Alder expansion stimulates nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions from southern Eurasian permafrost peatlands.

Nitrogen oxides (NOx) play an important role for atmospheric chemistry and radiative forcing. However, NOx emissions from the vast northern circumpolar permafrost regions have not been studied in situ due to limitations of measurement techniques. Our goals were to validate the offline analytical technique, and based on this, to widely quantify in situ NOx emissions from peatlands in the southern Eurasian permafrost region. To this end, we conducted a comparison of online and offline flux measurements in 2018 and 2019 using the synthetic air flushing, steady-state opaque chamber method. With differences in annual average and cumulative fluxes less than 0.1 µg N m-2 h-1 and 0.01 kg N ha-1 year-1, the online and offline fluxes were in good agreement, demonstrating the feasibility of conducting offline measurements in remote regions without power supply. The flux measurements over 2 years showed obvious NOx emissions of 0.05-0.14 and 0.13-0.30 kg N ha-1 year-1 in the hollow and hummock microtopography of permafrost peatlands, respectively. The rapid expansion of alder (Alnus sibirica) in the peatlands induced by permafrost degradation significantly increased soil mineral N contents and NOx emissions depending on the age of alder (0.64-1.74 and 1.44-2.20 kg N ha-1 year-1 from the alder forests with tree ages of 1-10 years and 11-20 years, respectively). Alder expansion also intensively altered the thermal state of permafrost including the sharp increases of soil temperatures during the non-growing season from October to April and active layer thickness. This study provides the first in situ evidences of NOx emissions from the northern circumpolar permafrost regions and uncovers the well-documented expansion of alders can substantially stimulate NOx emissions and thus, significantly affect air quality, radiative forcing, and ecosystem productivity in the pristine regions.

Atmospheric wet and dry phosphorus deposition in Lake Erhai, China.

Lake Erhai is a potentially phosphorus (P)-limited lake and its water quality may have been affected by atmospheric P deposition. However, there have been few studies on atmospheric P deposition in this lake. In this study, we established five wet deposition monitoring sites and two dry deposition monitoring sites around Lake Erhai to quantify the wet and dry deposition of total phosphorus (TP), including dissolved inorganic phosphorus (DIP), dissolved organic phosphorus (DOP) and particulate phosphorus (PP) from July 2022 to June 2023. Wet deposition fluxes of P species were collected by automatic rainfall collection instrument, and dry deposition fluxes were estimated using airborne concentration measurements and inferential models. The results reveal that among the different P components, DOP had the highest contribution (50%) to wet TP deposition (average all sites 12.7 ± 0.7 mg P m2/yr), followed by PP (40%) and DIP (10%). Similarly, DOP (51%) was the major contributor to dry TP deposition (average two sites 2.4 ± 0.9 mg P m2/yr), followed by DIP (35%) and PP (14%). Wet deposition dominated the annual total TP deposition (wet plus dry), accounting for approximately 83%. The key seasons for dry deposition were spring and autumn, which accounted for 64% of the annual total dry TP deposition. In comparison, wet deposition was significantly higher in the summer, accounting for 73% of the annual total wet TP deposition. The results of the potential source contribution function and concentration-weighted trajectories analysis indicate that local source emission and long-range transport from surrounding cities jointly exerted a substantial influence on aerosol P concentrations, particularly in the eastern and northwestern regions of the lake. These findings provide a comprehensive understanding of the different P components in atmospheric deposition, which is beneficial for developing effective strategies to manage the P cycle in Lake Erhai.

Large Seasonal Variation in Nitrogen Isotopic Abundances of Ammonia Volatilized from a Cropland Ecosystem and Implications for Regional NH3 Source Partitioning.

Ammonia (NH3) volatilization from agricultural lands is a main source of atmospheric reduced nitrogen species (NHx). Accurately quantifying its contribution to regional atmospheric NHx deposition is critical for controlling regional air nitrogen pollution. The stable nitrogen isotope composition (expressed by δ15N) is a promising indicator to trace atmospheric NHx sources, presupposing a reliable nitrogen isotopic signature of NH3 emission sources. To obtain more specific seasonal δ15N values of soil NH3 volatilization for reliable regional seasonal NH3 source partitioning, we utilized an active dynamic sampling technique to measure the δ15N-NH3 values volatilized from maize cropping land in northeast China. These values varied from -38.0 to -0.2‰, with a significantly lower rate-weighted value observed in the early period (May-June, -30.5 ± 6.7‰) as compared with the late period (July-October, -8.5 ± 4.3‰). Seasonal δ15N-NH3 variations were related to the main NH3 production pathway, degree of soil ammonium consumption, and soil environment. Bayesian isotope mixing model analysis revealed that without considering the seasonal δ15N variation in soil-volatilized NH3 could result in an overestimate by up to absolute 38% for agricultural volatile NH3 to regional atmospheric bulk ammonium deposition during July-October, further demonstrating that it is essential to distinguish seasonal δ15N profile of agricultural volatile NH3 in regional source apportionment.

Oligomer formation from cross-reaction of Criegee intermediates in the styrene-isoprene-O3 mixed system.

Alkene ozonolysis can produce stabilized Criegee intermediates (SCIs), which play a key role in oligomers' formation. Though styrene and isoprene coexist in the ambient atmosphere as important anthropogenic and biogenic secondary organic aerosol (SOA) precursors, respectively, their cross-reactions have not received attention. This study investigated the interactions of SCIs from styrene and isoprene ozonolysis for the first time. The high-resolution Orbitrap mass spectrometer was used to determine the unique ion mass spectra of the isoprene-styrene-O3 mixture. The results show that the signal intensities of new ions account for >8.4% of total ions in the mass spectra of the styrene-isoprene-O3 mixed system. Styrene and isoprene ozonolysis can produce characteristic C7-SCI and C4-SCI, respectively. C7-SCI and C4-SCI can be involved in the cross-reactions, and the results of tandem mass spectra directly confirmed both C7-SCI and C4-SCI as chain units. The O/C and H/C ratios of cross-products are in the range of 0.38-1.07 and 1.00-1.50, respectively, which are consistent with cross-reaction products. Adding a C7-SCI unit reduces the oligomer's volatility by 1.3-1.4 orders of magnitude lower than adding a C4-SCI unit. Thus, C4-SCI can compete with C7-SCI to react with styrene-derived RO2/RC(O)OH to produce more volatile cross-products, while the less volatile cross-products can be formed when isoprene-derived RO2/RC(O)OH reacted with C7-SCI instead of C4-SCI. The SOA yield of the mixed system is lower than that of the single styrene-O3 system but higher than that of the single isoprene-O3 system. Ambient particles were also collected, and 5 possible SCI-related cross-products were identified. This study illustrates the effects of SCI-related cross-reactions on SOA components and physicochemical properties, providing a basis for future research on SCI-related cross-reactions that frequently occur in the ambient atmosphere.

Apportioning Atmospheric Ammonia Sources across Spatial and Seasonal Scales by Their Isotopic Fingerprint.

Mitigating ammonia (NH3) emissions is a significant challenge, given its well-recognized role in the troposphere, contributing to secondary particle formation and impacting acid rain. The difficulty arises from the highly uncertain attribution of atmospheric NH3 to specific emission sources, especially when accounting for diverse environments and varying spatial and temporal scales. In this study, we established a refined δ15N fingerprint for eight emission sources, including three previously overlooked sources of potential importance. We applied this approach in a year-long case study conducted in urban and rural sites located only 40 km apart in the Shandong Peninsula, North China Plain. Our findings highlight that although atmospheric NH3 concentrations and seasonal trends exhibited similarities, their isotopic compositions revealed significant distinctions in the primary NH3 sources. In rural areas, although agriculture emerged as the dominant emission source (64.2 ± 19.5%), a previously underestimated household stove source also played a considerably greater role, particularly during cold seasons (36.5 ± 12.5%). In urban areas, industry and traffic (33.5 ± 15.6%) and, surprisingly, sewage treatment (27.7 ± 11.3%) associated with high population density were identified as the major contributors. Given the relatively short lifetime of atmospheric NH3, our findings highlight the significance of the isotope approach in offering a more comprehensive understanding of localized and seasonal influences of NH3 sources compared to emissions inventories. The refined isotopic fingerprint proves to be an effective tool in distinguishing source contributions across spatial and seasonal scales, thereby providing valuable insights for the development of emission mitigation policies aimed at addressing the increasing NH3 burden on the local atmosphere.

Revisiting the dynamics of gaseous ammonia and ammonium aerosols during the COVID-19 lockdown in urban Beijing using machine learning models.

The concentration of atmospheric ammonia (NH3) in urban Beijing substantially decreased during the COVID-19 lockdown (24 January to 3 March 2020), likely due to the reduced human activities. However, quantifying the impact of anthropogenic interventions on NH3 dynamics is challenging, as both meteorology and chemistry mask the real changes in observed NH3 concentrations. Here, we applied machine learning techniques based on random forest models to decouple the impacts of meteorology and emission changes on the gaseous NH3 and ammonium aerosol (NH4+) concentrations in Beijing during the lockdown. Our results showed that the meteorological conditions were unfavorable during the lockdown and tended to cause an increase of 8.4 % in the NH3 concentration. In addition, significant reductions in NOx and SO2 emissions could also elevate NH3 concentrations by favoring NH3 gas-phase partitioning. However, the observed NH3 concentration significantly decreased by 35.9 % during the lockdown, indicating a significant reduction in emissions or enhanced chemical sinks. Rapid gas-to-particle conversion was indeed found during the lockdown. Thus, the observed reduced NH3 concentrations could be partially explained by the enhanced transformation into NH4+. Therefore, the sum of NH3 and NH4+ (collectively, NHx) is a more reliable tracer than NH3 or NH4+ alone to estimate the changes in NH3 emissions. Compared to that under the scenario without lockdowns, the NHx concentration decreased by 26.4 %. We considered that this decrease represents the real decrease in NH3 emissions in Beijing due to the lockdown measures, which was less of a decrease than that based on NH3 only (35.9 %). This study highlights the importance of considering chemical sinks in the atmosphere when applying machine learning techniques to link the concentrations of reactive species with their emissions.

Summertime Urban Ammonia Emissions May Be Substantially Underestimated in Beijing, China.

Ammonia (NH3) is critical to the nitrogen cycle and PM2.5 formation, yet a great deal of uncertainty exists in its urban emission quantifications. Model-underestimated NH3 concentrations have been reported for cities, yet few studies have provided an explanation. Here, we explore reasons for severe WRF-Chem model underestimations of NH3 concentrations in Beijing in August 2018, including simulated gas-particle partitioning, meteorology, regional transport, and emissions, using spatially refined (3 km resolution) NH3 emission estimates in the agricultural sector for Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei and in the traffic sector for Beijing. We find that simulated NH3 concentrations are significantly lower than ground-based and satellite observations during August in Beijing, while wintertime underestimations are much more moderate. Further analyses and sensitivity experiments show that such discrepancies cannot be attributed to factors other than biases in NH3 emissions. Using site measurements as constraints, we estimate that both agricultural and non-agricultural NH3 emission totals in Beijing shall increase by ∼5 times to match the observations. Future research should be performed to allocate underestimations to urban fertilizer, power, traffic, or residential sources. Dense and regular urban NH3 observations are necessary to constrain and validate bottom-up inventories and NHx simulation.

Differentiation Between Phyllodes Tumors and Fibroadenomas of Breast Using Mammography-based Machine Learning Methods: A Preliminary Study.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the diagnostic performance of a mammography-based radiomics model for distinguishing phyllodes tumors (PTs) from fibroadenomas (FAs) of the breast. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A total of 156 patients were retrospectively included (75 with PTs, 81 with FAs) and divided into training and validation groups at a ratio of 7:3. Radiomics features were extracted from craniocaudal and mediolateral oblique images. The least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) algorithm and principal component analysis (PCA) were performed to select features. Three machine learning classifiers, including logistic regression (LR), K-nearest neighbor classifier (KNN) and support vector machine (SVM), were implemented in the radiomics model, imaging model and combined model. Receiver operating characteristic curves, area under the curve (AUC), sensitivity and specificity were computed. RESULTS: Among 1084 features, the LASSO algorithm selected 17 features, and PCA further selected 6 features. Three machine learning classifiers yielded the same AUC of 0.935 in the validation group for the radiomics model. In the imaging model, KNN yielded the highest accuracy rate of 89.4% and AUC of 0.947 in the validation set. For the combined model, the SVM classifier reached the highest AUC of 0.918 with an accuracy rate of 86.2%, sensitivity of 83.9%, and specificity of 89.4% in the training group. In the validation group, LR yielded the highest AUC of 0.973. The combined model had a relatively higher AUC than the radiomics model or imaging model, especially in the validation group. CONCLUSIONS: Mammography-based radiomics features demonstrate good diagnostic performance for discriminating PTs from FAs.

Wildfire-Derived Nitrogen Aerosols Threaten the Fragile Ecosystem in Himalayas and Tibetan Plateau.

Himalayas and Tibetan Plateau (HTP) is important for global biodiversity and regional sustainable development. While numerous studies have revealed that the ecosystem in this unique and pristine region is changing, their exact causes are still poorly understood. Here, we present a year-round (23 March 2017 to 19 March 2018) ground- and satellite-based atmospheric observation at the Qomolangma monitoring station (QOMS, 4276 m a.s.l.). Based on a comprehensive chemical and stable isotope (15N) analysis of nitrogen compounds and satellite observations, we provide unequivocal evidence that wildfire emissions in South Asia can come across the Himalayas and threaten the HTP's ecosystem. Such wildfire episodes, mostly occurring in spring (March-April), not only substantially enhanced the aerosol nitrogen concentration but also altered its composition (i.e., rendering it more bioavailable). We estimated a nitrogen deposition flux at QOMS of ∼10 kg N ha-1 yr-1, which is approximately twice the lower value of the critical load range reported for the Alpine ecosystem. Such adverse impact is particularly concerning, given the anticipated increase of wildfire activities in the future under climate change.

On-road mobile mapping of spatial variations and source contributions of ammonia in Beijing, China.

Ammonia (NH3) measurements were performed with a mobile platform deploying a cavity ring-down spectroscopy NH3 analyzer in Beijing. The transect and loop sampling strategy revealed that the Beijing urban area is more strongly affected by NH3 emissions than surrounding areas. Although average enhancements of on-road NH3 were small compared to background levels, traffic emissions clearly dominated city enhancements of NH3, carbon dioxide (CO2), acetaldehyde and acetone. Increments of on-road NH3 ranged between 5.1 ppb and 11.4 ppb in urban areas, representing an enhancement of 20.6 % to 47.9 % over the urban background. The vehicle NH3:CO2 emission ratio was 0.26 ppb/ppm, about a factor of 1.5 higher than the value derived from the available emission inventory. The obtained NH3 emission factor was approximately 306.9 mg/kg. If the annual gasoline consumption in Beijing is accurate, annual NH3 emissions from vehicles are estimated at 1.5 Gg. The influx and outflux of NH3 in Beijing during monitoring periods fluctuated due to variations of wind direction (WD), wind speed (WS), and planetary boundary layer height (PBLH). Net fluxes at the 4th Ring Road were larger than zero, suggesting that local emissions were important in urban Beijing. Negative net fluxes at the 6th Ring Road reveal a large amount of NH3 transported from agricultural regions south of Beijing lost during transport across the city, for example by deposition or particle formation in the city. Our analyses have important implications for regional NH3 emission estimates and for improving vehicular NH3 emission inventory allocations.

Urgency of controlling agricultural nitrogen sources to alleviate summertime air pollution in the North China Plain.

Agricultural nitrogen sources (ANS) have played an increasingly important role in the air quality since ANS emission controls are much weaker than those for fossil fuel combustion sources due to the increasing food demand. However, ANS emissions are highly uncertain due to stochastic agricultural management activities and limited field measurements, and impacts of ANS on the air quality remain elusive. In the study, the WRF-Chem model has been used to investigate ANS shares in near surface air pollutant concentrations during a growing season in the North China Plain (NCP), with ANS emissions constrained by satellite retrievals. Soil NOX and agricultural NH3 emissions are about 36% and 92% of their total emissions during the growing season. Sensitivity studies demonstrate that ANS count 16.9 µg m-3 (9.9%) of the mean maximum daily average 8-h ozone concentrations (MDA8 [O3]) and 8.9 µg m-3 (31.7%) of fine particulate matter concentrations ([PM2.5]) on average in the NCP. Additionally, the contributions of ANS to MDA8 [O3] and [PM2.5] increase with the deterioration of air pollution in cities. A 50% emission reduction in ANS decreases MDA8 [O3] ([PM2.5]) from 4.2% to 8.4% (from 19.7% to 31.9%) when the air quality changes from being lightly to heavily polluted in terms of MDA8 [O3] (hourly [PM2.5]). Without fossil fuel combustion emissions, the simulated average MDA8 [O3] and [PM2.5] are 111.7 and 8.2 µg m-3 in cities of the NCP, respectively, exceeding the new standards from the World Health Organization. Our study highlights important contributions of ANS to air quality and the urgency of ANS emission abatement for air pollution alleviation during summertime in the NCP.

Isotopic imprints of aerosol ammonium over the north China plain.

Atmospheric PM2.5 poses a variety of health and environmental risks to urban environments. Ammonium is one of the main components of PM2.5, and its role in PM2.5 pollution will likely increase in the coming years as NH3 emissions are still unregulated and rising in many cities worldwide. However, partitioning urban NH4+ sources remains challenging. Although the 15N natural abundance (δ15N) analysis is a promising approach for this purpose, it has seldom been applied across multiple cities within a given region. This limits our understanding of the regional patterns and controls of NH4+ sources in urban environments. Here, we collected PM2.5 samples using an active sampling technique during winter at six cities in the North China Plain to characterize the concentrations, δ15N and sources of NH4+ in PM2.5. We found substantial variations in both the concentrations and δ15N of NH4+ among the sites. The mean NH4+ concentrations across the six cities ranged from 3.6 to 12.1 µg m-3 on polluted days and from 0.9 to 10.6 µg m-3 on non-polluted days. The δ15N ranged from 6.5‰ to 13.9‰ on polluted days and from 8.7‰ to 13.5‰ on non-polluted days. The δ15N decreased with increasing NH4+ concentrations at all six sites. We found that non-agricultural sources (vehicle exhaust, ammonia slip and urban wastes) contributed 72%-94% and 56%-86% of the NH4+ on polluted and non-polluted days, respectively, and that during polluted days, combustion-related emissions (vehicle exhaust and ammonia slip) were positively associated with the proportion of urban area, population density and number of vehicles, highlighting the importance of local sources of particulate pollution. This study suggests that the analysis of 15N in aerosol NH4+ is a promising approach for apportioning atmospheric NH3 sources over a large region, and this approach has potential for mapping rapidly and precisely the sources of NH3 emissions.

Formation of extremely low-volatility organic compounds from styrene ozonolysis: Implication for nucleation.

Styrene is a highly reactive compound with the dual nature of aromatics and olefins. This work presents evidence for formation of extremely low-volatility organic compounds (ELVOCs) from styrene ozonolysis. The molecules of ELVOCs were analyzed using a high-resolution orbitrap mass spectrometer. The results show that ELVOCs were oligomers characterized by stabilized Criegee radicals (SCIs) as chain units. The addition of C6H5CHOO (SCI1) or CH2OO (SCI2) can dramatically decrease the oligomers' volatility. At low relative humidity (RH), ELVOCs are mainly formed from the reaction of RO2 radical, C6H5OO·, with SCI1 and SCI2; however, ELVOCs are primarily produced by the reaction between benzoic acid and SCI1 at high RH. Ambient particles were also collected to propose the probable oligomers from styrene-SCI. Our results suggest that styrene-SCI derived ELVOCs may act as nucleating agents, potentially providing an experimental basis for nucleation events that frequently occur in urban areas.

Is fertilization the dominant source of ammonia in the urban atmosphere?

It was previously believed that ammonia (NH3) has a short residence time in the atmosphere and cannot be transported far from its sources. In late March, however, this study observed a severe NH3 episode in urban Beijing when fertilizer was intensively applied on the North China Plain, with the highest hourly concentrations of 66.9 µg m-3 throughout the year. The stable nitrogen isotopic composition of NH3 (δ15N-NH3) during this episode (-37.0 to -20.0‰) fell in the range of endmembers of fertilizer and livestock, suggesting the long-range transport of NH3 from agricultural to urban regions. Based on a Bayesian isotope mixing model, the contribution of agriculture (fertilization) to urban NH3 concentrations was apportioned as 43.5% (26.0%) on polluted days. However, these contributions were reduced to 29.1% (12.8%) when nitrogen isotope fractionation between NH3 and ammonium was considered. In contrast to the limited contribution of agricultural sources, we found that nonagricultural emissions, particularly vehicles, dominate the source of NH3 in urban Beijing, even during the fertilization period. This finding indicated that nonagricultural sources should be considered when designing a control strategy for NH3 to reduce haze pollution in the urban atmosphere.

Sulfate Formation Apportionment during Winter Haze Events in North China.

There is a large gap between the simulated and observed sulfate concentrations during winter haze events in North China. Although multiphase sulfate formation mechanisms have been proposed, they have not been evaluated using chemical transport models. In this study, the Weather Research and Forecasting model coupled with Chemistry (WRF-Chem) was used to apportion sulfate formation. It was found that Mn-catalyzed oxidation on aerosol surfaces was the dominant sulfate formation pathway, accounting for 92.3 ± 3.5% of the sulfate formation during haze events. Gas-phase oxidation contributed 3.1 ± 0.5% to the sulfate formation due to the low OH levels. The H2O2 oxidation in aerosol water accounted for 4.2 ± 3.6% of the sulfate formation, caused by the rapid consumption of H2O2. The contributions of O3, NO2 oxidation, and transition metal ion-catalyzed reactions in aerosol water could be negligible owing to the low aerosol water content, low pH, and high ionic strength. The contributions from in-cloud reactions were negligible due to the barrier provided by stable stratification during winter haze events.

Wall losses of oxygenated volatile organic compounds from oxidation of toluene: Effects of chamber volume and relative humidity.

Vapor wall losses can affect the yields of secondary organic aerosol. The effects of surface-to-volume (S/V) ratio and relative humidity (RH) on the vapor-wall interactions were investigated in this study. The oxygenated volatile organic compounds (OVOCs) were generated from toluene-H2O2 irradiations. The average gas to wall loss rate constant (kgw) of OVOCs in a 400 L reactor (S/V = 7.5 m-1) is 2.47 (2.41 under humid conditions) times higher than that in a 5000 L reactor (S/V = 3.6 m-1) under dry conditions. In contrast, the average desorption rate constant (kwg) of OVOCs in 400 L reactor is only 1.37 (1.20 under humid conditions) times higher than that in 5000 L reactor under dry conditions. It shows that increasing the S/V ratio can promote the wall losses of OVOCs. By contrast, the RH effect on kgw is not prominent. The average kgw value under humid conditions is almost the same as under dry conditions in the 400 L (5000 L) reactor. However, increasing RH can decrease the desorption rates. The average kwg value under dry conditions is 1.45 (1.27) times higher than that under humid conditions in the 400 L (5000 L) reactor. The high RH can increase the partitioning equilibrium timescales and enhance the wall losses of OVOCs.

Vehicular Emissions Enhanced Ammonia Concentrations in Winter Mornings: Insights from Diurnal Nitrogen Isotopic Signatures.

A general feature in the diurnal cycle of atmospheric ammonia (NH3) concentrations is a morning spike that typically occurs around 07:00 to 10:00 (LST). Current hypotheses to explain this morning's NH3 increase remain elusive, and there is still no consensus whether traffic emissions are among the major sources of urban NH3. Here, we confirmed that the NH3 morning pulse in urban Beijing is a universal feature, with an annual occurrence frequency of 73.0% and a rapid growth rate (>20%) in winter. The stable nitrogen isotopic composition of NH3 (δ15N-NH3) in winter also exhibited a significant diurnal variation with an obvious morning peak at 07:00 to 10:00 (-18.6‰, mass-weighted mean), higher than other times of the day (-26.3‰). This diurnal pattern suggests that a large fraction of NH3 in the morning originated from nonagricultural sources, for example, power plants, vehicles, and coal combustion that tend to have higher δ15N-NH3 emission signatures relative to agricultural emissions. In particular, the contribution from vehicular emissions increased from 18% (00:00 to 07:00) to 40% (07:00 to 10:00), while the contribution of fertilizer sources to NH3 was reduced from 15.8% at 00:00 to 07:00 to 5.2% at 07:00 to 10:00. We concluded that NH3 concentrations in winter mornings in urban Beijing were indeed enhanced by vehicle emissions, which should be considered in air pollution regulations.

Synergistic effect of reductions in multiple gaseous precursors on secondary inorganic aerosols in winter under a meteorology-based redistributed daily NH3 emission inventory within the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region, China.

Secondary inorganic aerosols (SIA) account for 20-60% of the total fine particulates in the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei (BTH) region of China, indicating an urgent need to clarify the relationship among such compounds. The purpose of this study was to quantify the relationship between emissions of NH3, NOx, SO2, VOCs and SIA concentrations during a severe winter haze episode using an air quality model and a meteorology-based redistributed NH3 emission inventory within the BTH region. The results showed that the model performance regarding the NH3 simulations in January by the four emission inventories improved after the redistribution of daily NH3 emissions, with an increase of 0.02-0.13 in R, a 9-56% decrease in NMB, and a 7-51% decrease in NME. The updated simulations reproduced the daily observations of SIA, SO2, and NO2 well. A total of 125 sets of sensitivity simulations showed that a synergistic reduction in NH3 and VOCs was more efficient in terms of SIA control than simply reducing SO2 or NOx in the BTH region. If only NOx emissions were reduced, the SIA concentration would first increase and then decrease, and it could decline by another 0.86-8.03% in parallel with an equal NH3 emission cut. SIA could be reduced by approximately 22.68% with the most stringent inorganic precursors' control. Moreover, VOCs emission reductions could lead to a decrease in SIA, and the impact of VOCs on SIA was similar to that of NH3. The collaborative control of both inorganic precursors and VOCs was more effective than single-factor control measures for decreasing SIA, and the decline rate was approximately 29.26% under minimum emission conditions. This improved effectiveness was obtained because VOCs mitigation effectively decreases the ozone concentration, which in turn influences SIA formation. Finally, on the premise of a 60% SO2 cut, the reduction scheme NH3:VOCs:NOx = 4:4:1 was suggested for SIA control.

Eddy covariance measurements of ozone flux above and below a southern subtropical forest canopy.

While extensive eddy covariance (EC) measurements of ozone (O3) flux have been reported in American and European forests, such measurements in Asian forests are scarce. Here, we presented the first EC measurements of O3 flux at two levels (above and below the canopy) in a Chinese forest. Above the canopy, O3 always moved downward, with a maximum O3 flux intensity of -15 ~ -10 nmol m-2 s-1 occurring at 9:00-14:00 LT and a maximum O3 deposition velocity of 1.23 cm s-1 occurring at 9:00 LT; both of these values fell to nearly 0 at night. The O3 deposition flux and O3 deposition velocity below the canopy were both lower than those above the canopy. This discrepancy reached the maximum at 9:00-15:00 local time (LT), with the O3 deposition flux and O3 deposition velocity below the canopy being approximately 35 and 42% of those above the canopy, respectively. The O3 flux was well correlated with the CO2 flux and the latent heat flux, suggesting the important role of stomatal uptake in O3 deposition. The O3 deposition velocity increased with the increase in the air temperature, relative humidity, photosynthetically active radiation and friction velocity, but when these meteorological factors exceeded their optimum values, the increase in the O3 deposition velocity tended to be flat. These findings advanced our understanding of the interactions between forests and the atmosphere. This unique dataset is also of great significance for the validation of relevant models concerned with the various impacts of the rapid increase in global O3 concentrations.