Predictors of smoking cessation from adolescence into young adulthood.

Although smoking cigarettes is hazardous to health and cessation has positive health benefits, few smokers are able to successfully quit. The purpose of this study was to examine the predictors of smoking cessation in a nonclinical sample of 134 male and 190 female, young adult, regular (daily) smokers within a social learning and maturing-out framework. Four waves of prospective, longitudinal data from a community sample followed from adolescence into young adulthood were analyzed. Logistic regression analyses were used to test the effects of differential associations, definitions, differential reinforcement, and changes in adult role status on smoking cessation in young adulthood. Becoming married to a nonsmoker and decreases in the proportion of friends who smoked were significant predictors of cessation. Current smokers and stoppers did not differ significantly in terms of prior intensity of cigarette use or alcohol abuse/dependence. They also did not differ in terms of psychological characteristics, including depression and prior coping use of cigarettes. Social networks were more important than social roles for predicting cessation in young adulthood. Thus, smoking cessation programs should focus on social learning processes.

Changes in alcoholic patients' coping responses predict 12-month treatment outcomes.

Patient subtypes (Types A and B alcoholism), determinants, and outcomes associated with changes in coping responses of 133 alcoholic patients in the year following admission to treatment were examined. In general, patients' use of avoidance coping declined and use of approach coping increased. Type B patients used more avoidance coping than did Type A patients, but the subtypes did not differ in rate of change in coping. As a determinant of coping, cognitive appraisal of threat showed a trend toward predicting avoidance coping at 6- and 12-month follow-ups. Decreased cognitive avoidance coping (e.g., daydreaming) predicted fewer alcohol, psychological, and interpersonal problems. Increased behavioral approach coping (e.g.. taking action) predicted lower severity of alcohol problems. Further study of changes in the cognitive aspects of coping (i.e., appraisals and cognitive avoidance coping) is needed to determine mechanisms underlying cognitive processes associated with treatment outcomes.

Alcohol problems among a community sample: longitudinal influences of stress, coping, and gender.

This study examined the relationships among stress, coping methods, and alcohol-use associated problems within a longitudinal, community sample of males and females who were followed from adolescence through young adulthood. While fewer females than males were categorized as "dependent users," these females were more debilitated in terms of the number of alcohol-related problems experienced from age 15 through age 25. Measures of both chronic and proximal levels of personal stress and negative coping styles were most helpful in explaining problems with alcohol use. Distal measures of stress and coping, while perhaps serving as mediators or moderators of other important constructs, did not appear to have a direct effect on the outcome measure.

Problem drinking from young adulthood to adulthood: patterns, predictors and outcomes.

OBJECTIVE: Many young adults engage in heavy or problem drinking, but it is unclear who will continue problem drinking into adulthood. This study followed a general population sample in order to study patterns of problem drinking over time, to identify differences among drinking groups, to test a model differentiating youth-limited from developmentally-persistent problem drinkers, and to examine adult outcomes. METHOD: Data were from the Health and Human Development Project; subjects (N = 1,073) were in three age cohorts (age 18-25; age 21-28; age 24-31). Based on use and consequences data from two assessment intervals, cluster analyses were performed. RESULTS: Cluster analyses yielded four drinking groups: youth-limited problem drinkers, stable moderate drinkers, stable low drinkers and developmentally-persistent problem drinkers. Rates of youth-limited problem drinking peaked in the middle cohort and rates of developmentally-persistent problem drinking decreased in the oldest cohort. Discriminant analysis revealed that developmentally-persistent problem drinkers in each age cohort are more likely to be male, to show high disinhibition, and to experience a high level of problem behaviors. Youth-limited problem drinkers were similar to developmentally-persistent problem drinkers on many young adult characteristics and adult outcomes. Developmentally-persistent problem drinkers in each age cohort continued to show higher levels of problem behaviors in adulthood than youth-limited problem drinkers. CONCLUSIONS: Most young adults show continuity of drinking patterns. Although developmentally-persistent problem drinkers did not differ from youth-limited problem drinkers in adopting adult roles, their continued experience of many problem behaviors suggests that they fail to adopt the role of greater conventionality in adulthood.

Age of first use: its reliability and predictive utility.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was: (1) to assess the utility of age of first licit use and age of first illicit use as predictors of alcohol and drug use at ages 20 and 30; and (2) to examine the reliability of retrospectively recalled ages of onset of use. METHOD: Subjects (N = 839) from the Rutgers Health and Human Development Project provided four waves of longitudinal data spanning the age range from 15 to 31. RESULTS: Retrospective recall of age of onset revealed a fair degree of relative agreement but a lack of absolute agreement because of an upward shift in recalled ages as individuals became older. Repeated measures ANOVAS revealed normative declines in alcohol and drug use from 20 to 30 even though individual differences in use remained quite stable across time. Regression analyses indicated that: (1) age of first licit use as recalled at age 18 did not predict alcohol or drug use at age 20; (2) age of first illicit use was a weak predictor of alcohol use at 20 but a fairly strong predictor of drug use at 20; and (3) neither age predicted use or use consequences at age 30. CONCLUSIONS: In the general population, illicit drug use and heavier alcohol use are, regardless of age of onset, adolescence-limited phenomena for most individuals. Findings suggest that intervention efforts need to be aimed simultaneously at delaying the onset of illicit use and reducing use levels among young adult users.

A longitudinal examination of the relationships among stress, coping strategies, and problems associated with alcohol use.

This study examined the longitudinal relationships among family history of alcoholism (FH+), stress levels, utilization of coping methods, and alcohol-related problems. Data used in this study were obtained from a nonclinical sample of subjects who were originally interviewed when they were 12, 15, or 18 years of age and followed-up twice more at 3-year intervals for a longitudinal sample size of 1270. Although a greater percentage of females in this sample reported a FH+ background as well as higher levels of stress, they tended to utilize positive coping strategies more often and reported fewer numbers of alcohol problems than males. In general, younger subjects who reported high levels of stress experienced more alcohol-related problems regardless of coping method chosen. In older subjects, the effect of stress on problems appeared to be buffered when coupled with the use of support seeking. Subjects whose stress preceded problems exhibited no significant difference from subjects whose problems preceded stress and symptom-free and "stressed-only" subjects were not significantly different from each other in number of problems at time 3, suggesting that a direct effect of stress alone on alcohol-related problems is questionable.

Familial alcoholism and premorbid cognitive deficit: a failure to replicate subtype differences.

Recent evidence suggests that offspring of alcoholics are heterogeneous in many areas of functioning. This study focuses on extending our understanding of the vulnerability and resilience of young adults with a positive family history of alcoholism (FH+) within the domain of neurocognitive functioning. Specifically, we test the hypothesis that cognitive vulnerability is linked to genetic pedigree by systematically examining a broad range of cognitive abilities in several distinct family history subtypes represented by alcoholism on the part of a first-degree relative only, a second-degree relative only, or both a first- and second-degree relative. Compared to an age-matched control group with no family history of alcoholism (FH-), FH+ subjects, on the average, reported somewhat less formal education than did FH- subjects. However, no substantive differences in cognitive functioning were obtained among any family history subtypes. Nor were any predicted yet nonsignificant trends in the ordering of mean cognitive performance levels observed across groups. These results strongly suggest that cognitive deficits do not generally obtain in community samples of premorbid FH+ subjects, and, further, that specific genetic pedigrees, as defined in this study, do not contribute to variability in neuropsychological functioning. A typological approach wherein subtypes of FH+ individuals are defined multidimensionally may be necessary to capture sources of neurocognitive vulnerability in premorbid offspring.

Personality stability and adolescent substance use behaviors.

Several personality needs have consistently been identified as placing adolescents at heightened risk for the relatively intensive use of alcohol and other drugs. At the same time, little is known about the natural history of personality change during adolescence as it relates to substance use behaviors. Yet, this question is of clear importance to our understanding of personality risk factors for substance use because personality needs appear less temporally stable during adolescence than later in the life span. In this study, we use prospective longitudinal data to investigate the relation of high-risk personality needs to substance use in two groups of adolescents: those who maintained a temporally stable personality need structure across 3 years and those who showed considerable changes in personality needs during the same time interval. Subjects were 12, 15, or 18 years old at the first test time and 15, 18, or 21 years old, respectively, at the second test time. For subjects of both sexes, only those who maintained a temporally stable, low-risk personality profile showed quite conservative substance use patterns across time compared with all others. Generalized personality changes were linked to more intensive substance use behaviors in males, especially among those who had high levels of risky personality needs at the first test time. In contrast, personality change, per se, did not appear as relevant to females' alcohol and other drug use behaviors until combined with information regarding their level of high-risk personality needs. The results are discussed in terms of their implications for prevention and future research.

Effects of the family environment on adolescent substance use, delinquency, and coping styles.

This study examines the overall and relative contributions of a variety of family environment measures to a child's alcohol, marijuana and other drug use, delinquent activity, and dysfunctional methods of coping with problems. The family environment variables tapped aspects of parental behaviors and attitudes, parenting styles, and family harmony and cohesion. Data were collected as part of a prospective, longitudinal study that examined the acquisition and maintenance of a variety of behaviors. Data were gleaned at two points in time, spanning 3-year intervals, from subjects ranging in age from early to late adolescence. In general, alcohol use among the younger subjects was more strongly determined by the use and attitudes of the same sex parent. In contrast, among older subjects, father's alcohol use was important to the offspring's use. While models predicting illicit drug use and the extent of problems related to alcohol and marijuana use fared least well, it was generally found that hostility and lack of warmth on the part of the parents contributed most to these outcomes in subjects. Finally, hostility displayed by both parents helped to determine the incidence of delinquency among sons and the use of dysfunctional coping methods among sons and daughters.

Familial and personal drinking histories and measures of competence in youth.

Based on self-reported family histories, a sample of 1,270 adolescents were categorized into one of three groups: a) family history of alcoholism (FHA), b) family history of heavy drinking (FHHD), and c) family history symptom free (FHSF). These subjects were assessed on 26 measures tapping intra- and interpersonal competence at three points in time. Results of repeated measures (test time) ANOVAs revealed that FHA subjects (as compared to the two other groups) exhibited greatest levels of stress due to their inability to get along with others and the lowest level of attachment to their parents. Over the three test times, FHA subjects appeared to maintain an inappropriately low level of social orientation and display decreases in self-efficacy, goal directedness, and the level of trust and respect for their parents. Children of heavy-drinking, nonalcoholic parents also exhibited low levels of school achievement motivation and social orientation. The alcohol/drug use pattern of the subject was found to be associated with more measures of competence than was family drinking background. Examination of the relationship of varying levels of substance use and competence measures by age group revealed that deficits are not static during the span of adolescence through young adulthood.

Serious alcohol and drug problems among adolescents with a family history of alcoholism.

Data concerning adolescents' alcohol- and drug-using behaviors, as well as the drinking patterns of their parents, were obtained from a sample of 1,380 New Jersey youth born between 1961 and 1969. Initially tested between 1979 and 1981 at ages 12, 15 or 18, these subjects were retested two additional times at 3-year intervals (retest rate = 92%). We wished to determine if offspring of families exhibiting a positive history of alcoholism (FH+) reported a serious alcohol or drug problem (including seeking treatment) at a higher rate than those without such backgrounds (FH-). Analyses indicated that FH+ rates for a self-reported alcohol and/or drug problem were about twice the rate for FH- individuals and about 1.5 times as high as the base rate for the entire sample. However, there were no significant differences between the two groups of troubled youth in terms of alcohol or marijuana use patterns or the frequency of use-related negative consequences. Our data also illustrated that FH+ females were as likely as FH+ males to report a serious problem and that FH+ families reported a higher rate of having more than one troubled offspring. It is of special import that these results are based upon observations of a community-based sample of adolescents and young adults in contrast to studies relying upon clinical samples and retrospective reports.

Risk factors of adolescent drug use: an affect-based interpretation.

We examined the continuity and stability of relational patterns among putative risk factors and measures of total drug use over the age period of 12 to 18. Using Marlatt's (1987) affect-based model of moderation versus dependence, risk factors were classified on the basis of their assumed relationships to (a) positive and negative affect and (b) low versus high constraint. It was hypothesized that two distinct developmental pathways characterize the emergence of drug use in a normal population sample of adolescents: one indicative of low constraint and a predominance of positive affect, the other indicative of low constraint and a predominance of negative affect. Results of principal components analyses generally support the hypothesis. Theoretical and methodological implications are discussed.

Familial drinking history as a predictor of alcohol and drug consumption among adolescent children.

Data concerning adolescent alcohol and drug using behaviors, as well as the drinking patterns of their parents, were obtained from a sample of 1,380 New Jersey youth born between 1961 and 1969. Initially tested between 1979 and 1981 at ages 12, 15 or 18, these subjects were retested between 1982 and 1984 (retest rate = 95%). We wish to describe the early differences in patterns of alcohol and drug use between offspring of families exhibiting a positive history of alcoholism (FH+) and those without such backgrounds (FH-). FH+ subjects are compared to three other groups from varying parental backgrounds (heavy drinking nonalcoholic parents, high stress families and symptom-free families) as regarding problem use. Several indicators of problem use (e.g., early onset of intoxication, frequent intoxication, escape drinking) were not found to be more prevalent among FH+ than FH- adolescents. Analyses indicate, however, that FH+ adolescents are more likely than FH- adolescents from symptom-free families to report experiencing problems/consequences related to both drinking and drug taking.

Psychosocial correlates of alcohol and drug use of adolescent students and adolescents in treatment.

The level of substance use by adolescent students and adolescents beginning treatment for alcohol and drug problems was related differentially to perceived psychological distress, self-concept, perceived parental environment, and negative events and behaviors caused by alcohol and drug use. These measures combined with selected sociodemographic variables to predict with a high degree of accuracy the level of substance use by the respondents.

Effects of delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol on active avoidance acquisition and passive avoidance retention in rats with amygdaloid lesions.

Delta9-Tetrahydrocannabinol was administered to rats with basolateral amygdaloid lesions, control rats, and normal rats in doses of 0.75, 1.5, and 3.0 mg/kg i.v. They were trained in a one-session two-way active avoidance task. Delta9-Tetrahydrocannabinol increased the percentage of avoidance and the intertrial crossing rates in all groups, regardless of lesion treatment. Rats with basolateral amygdaloid lesions were not different from controls on any measure. In a second experiment, delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol was administered to rats with basolateral amygdaloid lesions and control rats in doses of 0.75 and 3.0 mg/kg 24 h after learning of a one-trial passive avoidance task, and retention was measured. No differences were found as a function of drug treatment or lesion condition. It was concluded that the basolateral amygdala is not a necessary condition for the action of delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol on active avoidance acquisition, that the drug has no effect on passive avoidance retention, and the basolateral amygdala is not necessary for two-way active avoidance acquisition or passive avoidance retention. Active avoidance results are discussed in terms of a possible relationship between delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol, ACTH, and avoidance learning.