Nicotianamine synthase gene family as central components in heavy metal and phytohormone response in maize.

Nicotianamine (NA) is an important divalent metal chelator and the main precursor of phytosiderophores. NA is synthesized from S-adenosylmethionine in a process catalyzed by nicotianamine synthase (NAS). In this study, a set of structural and phylogenetic analyses have been applied to identify the maize NAS genes based on the maize genome sequence release. Ten maize NAS genes have been mapped; seven of them have not been reported to date. Phylogenetic analysis and expression pattern from microarray data led to their classification into two different orthologous groups. C-terminal fusion of ZmNAS3 with GFP was found in the cytoplasm of Arabidopsis leaf protoplast. Expression analysis by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction revealed ZmNAS genes are responsive to heavy metal ions (Ni, Fe, Cu, Mn, Zn, and Cd), and all 10 ZmNAS genes were only observed in the root tissue except of ZmNAS6. The promoter of ZmNAS genes was analyzed for the presence of different cis-element response to all kinds of phytohormones and environment stresses. We found that the ZmNAS gene expression of maize seedlings was regulated by jasmonic acid, abscisic acid, and salicylic acid. Microarray data demonstrated that the ZmNAS genes show differential, organ-specific expression patterns in the maize developmental steps. The integrated comparative analysis can improve our current view of ZmNAS genes and facilitate the functional characterization of individual members.

Aldehyde dehydrogenase protein superfamily in maize.

Maize (Zea mays ssp. mays L.) is an important model organism for fundamental research in the agro-biotechnology field. Aldehydes were generated in response to a suite of environmental stresses that perturb metabolism including salinity, dehydration, desiccation, and cold and heat shock. Many biologically important aldehydes are metabolized by the superfamily of NAD(P)(+)-dependent aldehyde dehydrogenases. Here, starting from the database of Z. mays, we identified 28 aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH) genes and 48 transcripts by the in silico cloning method using the ALDH-conserved domain amino acid sequence of Arabidopsis and rice as a probe. Phylogenetic analysis shows that all 28 members of the ALDH gene families were classified to ten distinct subfamilies. Microarray data and quantitative real-time PCR analysis reveal that ZmALDH9, ZmALDH13, and ZmALDH17 genes involve the function of drought stress, acid tolerance, and pathogens infection. These results suggested that these three ZmALDH genes might be potentially useful in maize genetic improvement.

Genealogy and palaeodrainage basins in Yunnan Province: phylogeography of the Yunnan spiny frog, Nanorana yunnanensis (Dicroglossidae).

Historical drainage patterns adjacent to the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau differed markedly from those of today. We examined the relationship between drainage history and geographic patterns of genetic variation in the Yunnan spiny frog, Nanorana yunnanensis, using approximately 981 base pairs of mitochondrial DNA partial sequences from protein-coding genes ND1 and ND2, and intervening areas including complete tRNA(Ile), tRNA(Gln) and tRNA(Met). Two null hypotheses were tested: (i) that genetic patterns do not correspond to the development of drainage systems and (ii) that populations had been stable and not experienced population expansion, bottlenecking and selection. Genealogical analyses identified three, major, well-supported maternal lineages, each of which had two sublineages. These divergent lineages were completely concordant with six geographical regions. Genetic structure and divergence were strongly congruent with historical rather than contemporary drainage patterns. Most lineages and sublineages were formed via population fragmentation during the rearrangement of paleodrainage basins in the Early Pliocene and Early Pleistocene. Sympatric lineages occurred only in localities at the boundaries of major drainages, likely reflecting secondary contact of previously allopatric populations. Extensive population expansion probably occurred early in the Middle Pleistocene accompanying dramatic climatic oscillations.

mtDNA data indicate a single origin for dogs south of Yangtze River, less than 16,300 years ago, from numerous wolves.

There is no generally accepted picture of where, when, and how the domestic dog originated. Previous studies of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) have failed to establish the time and precise place of origin because of lack of phylogenetic resolution in the so far studied control region (CR), and inadequate sampling. We therefore analyzed entire mitochondrial genomes for 169 dogs to obtain maximal phylogenetic resolution and the CR for 1,543 dogs across the Old World for a comprehensive picture of geographical diversity. Hereby, a detailed picture of the origins of the dog can for the first time be suggested. We obtained evidence that the dog has a single origin in time and space and an estimation of the time of origin, number of founders, and approximate region, which also gives potential clues about the human culture involved. The analyses showed that dogs universally share a common homogenous gene pool containing 10 major haplogroups. However, the full range of genetic diversity, all 10 haplogroups, was found only in southeastern Asia south of Yangtze River, and diversity decreased following a gradient across Eurasia, through seven haplogroups in Central China and five in North China and Southwest (SW)Asia, down to only four haplogroups in Europe. The mean sequence distance to ancestral haplotypes indicates an origin 5,400-16,300 years ago (ya) from at least 51 female wolf founders. These results indicate that the domestic dog originated in southern China less than 16,300 ya, from several hundred wolves. The place and time coincide approximately with the origin of rice agriculture, suggesting that the dogs may have originated among sedentary hunter-gatherers or early farmers, and the numerous founders indicate that wolf taming was an important culture trait.

Molecular phylogeny of the Drosophila obscura species group, with emphasis on the Old World species.

BACKGROUND: Species of the Drosophila obscura species group (e.g., D. pseudoobscura, D. subobscura) have served as favorable models in evolutionary studies since the 1930's. Despite numbers of studies conducted with varied types of data, the basal phylogeny in this group is still controversial, presumably owing to not only the hypothetical 'rapid radiation' history of this group, but also limited taxon sampling from the Old World (esp. the Oriental and Afrotropical regions). Here we reconstruct the phylogeny of this group by using sequence data from 6 loci of 21 species (including 16 Old World ones) covering all the 6 subgroups of this group, estimate the divergence times among lineages, and statistically test the 'rapid radiation' hypothesis. RESULTS: Phylogenetic analyses indicate that each of the subobscura, sinobscura, affinis, and pseudoobscura subgroups is monophyletic. The subobscura and microlabis subgroups form the basal clade in the obscura group. Partial species of the obscura subgroup (the D. ambigua/D. obscura/D. tristis triad plus the D. subsilvestris/D. dianensis pair) forms a monophyletic group which appears to be most closely related to the sinobscura subgroup. The remaining basal relationships in the obscura group are not resolved by the present study. Divergence times on a ML tree based on mtDNA data are estimated with a calibration of 30-35 Mya for the divergence between the obscura and melanogaster groups. The result suggests that at least half of the current major lineages of the obscura group originated by the mid-Miocene time (~15 Mya), a time of the last developing and fragmentation of the temperate forest in North Hemisphere. CONCLUSION: The obscura group began to diversify rapidly before invading into the New World. The subobscura and microlabis subgroups form the basal clade in this group. The obscura subgroup is paraphyletic. Partial members of this subgroup (D. ambigua, D. obscura, D. tristis, D. subsilvestris, and D. dianensis) form a monophyletic group which appears to be most closely related to the sinobscura subgroup.