Academic learning time in physical education (ALT-PE) during an adapted tennis program for children with autism spectrum disorders.

As the prevalence of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) increases, there is a growing need to develop physical activity interventions that address the behavioral challenges experienced by individuals with ASD. Physical education teachers have employed behavioral supports that add more structure and adapt the environment for individuals with ASD, which are associated with increased engagement for individuals with ASD during PE. The purpose of this study was to quantify motor engaged behaviors (i.e. motor appropriate (MA)), motor inappropriate (MI), motor supported (MS) during skill practice in 18 individuals with ASD (ages 7-19 years) participating in an adapted tennis program (ACEing Autism) using the Academic Learning Time in Physical Education (ALT-PE) instrument. Overall, the supports provided during the program may have enabled participants with ASD to spend more time in MA and MS than MI. Indeed, the participants spent over 50% of their time in MA during the program.

A Universal Program to Improve Mental Health among Youth from Low-Income Predominantly Minority Communities: Implementation of Advocates 4 ALL Youth (ALLY).

Disparities in mental health care and access to care disproportionately affect youth from minoritized and low-income communities. School-based prevention programs have the potential to offer a non-stigmatized approach to mental health care as well as the ability to reach many students simultaneously. Advocates 4 All Youth (ALLY) is a program developed for 5-6th grade students aimed at improving self-efficacy and resilience via individualized sessions with a trusted adult (ALLYs). The feasibility of delivering ALLY in a racially and minoritized low-income community is discussed and modifications required to implement the program documented. Students completed questionnaires and sessions with an ALLY. Aspects of program delivery deemed feasible included training ALLYs to delivery program, stakeholder buy-in regarding missing class time, and students attending the sessions. Further modifications included adjustments to materials due to lower reading level and health literacy related-educational needs. Programs designed in one demographic setting may not work in a different setting.

A call to create evidence-based mental health promotion interventions for youth that are equitable across ethnic/racial subgroups: Advocates 4-ALL Youth.

Background: Adolescents from historically racial and ethnic minoritized and low-income communities have higher rates of early-life and chronic difficulties with anxiety and depression compared to non-Hispanic White youth. With mental health distress exacerbated during and in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic, there is a need for accessible, equitable evidence-based programs that promote psychological well-being, strengthen one's ability to adapt to adversity, and build self-efficacy prior to adolescence. Methods: An evidenced-based resiliency-focused health coaching intervention was adapted using a health equity implementation framework to meet the needs of a Title I elementary school in rural Alabama (AL) that serves over 80% Black and Hispanic students. To ensure that the program met local community needs while maintaining core program educational activities, all adaptations were documented utilizing a standard coding system. Results: Leveraging an existing academic-community partnership with Auburn University and a local AL school district, a new program, Advocates 4-All Youth (ALLY), was created. Three major adaptations were required: (1) the use of local community volunteers (ALLYs) to deliver the program versus health coaches, (2) the modification of program materials to meet the challenge of varying levels of general and health-related literacy, and (3) the integration of the Empower Action Model to target protective factors in a culturally-tailored delivery to ensure key program outcomes are found equitable for all students. Conclusion: With continued increases in youth mental health distress, there is a need for the development of universal primary prevention interventions to promote mental well-being and to strengthen protective factors among youth from historically disadvantaged backgrounds. ALLY was created to meet these needs and may be an effective strategy if deemed efficacious in improving program outcomes.

The Effects of Virtual Zumba ® on Functional Outcomes in Adults with Developmental Disabilities.

INTRODUCTION: Few studies have examined the comprehensive impact of adaptive exercise interventions across multiple functional domains (i.e., physical and cognitive health) in adults with developmental disabilities (DD). METHODS: The present study examined the effects of a 10-wk (2 sessions per week, 1 h per session) adapted Zumba ® intervention on the Six-Minute Walk Test (6MWT), Timed Up and Go (TUG), Clinical Test of Sensory Interaction on Balance, body composition, and executive function in 44 adults with DD age 20.8-69.2 yr. In addition to examining overall differences between control and intervention conditions, the effects of different Zumba ® tempos (normal/low) were examined. A crossover design with a 3-month wash-out period was used such that participants in the intervention also served as controls. The participants were quasi-randomized into one of two Zumba ® conditions: low-tempo Zumba ® (0.75 normal speed; n = 23) and normal-tempo Zumba ® ( n = 21). RESULTS: A significant condition-time interaction was observed for the 6MWT and TUG; participants in the low and normal-tempo Zumba ® conditions significantly increased the distance walked for the 6MWT and reduced the total time for the TUG. No improvement was observed during the control condition for these measures. There were no significant condition-time interactions for the other outcomes. CONCLUSIONS: These findings have implications on the efficacy and implementation of virtual Zumba ® programs to increase abilities related to independent performance of activities of daily living in adults with disabilities.

Improvements in Swim Skills in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder Following a 5-Day Adapted Learn-To-Swim Program (iCan Swim).

Drowning is one of the leading causes of death in children and teenagers. Individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) are at increased risk for drowning. Improvements in swim skills have been observed in children with ASD participating in learn-to-swim programs. However, it is unclear if age, co-occurring conditions, and/or the dose of practice influence swim skills in this population. To this end, a secondary data analysis of iCan Swim program data was conducted to determine the efficacy of the 5-day adapted learn-to-swim program for a cohort of children with ASD ages 3-16 years (n = 86). Participant swim level was evaluated at the start and end of the program. Linear mixed-effects regression was used to examine the effects of Time (start/end), Age, Dose of Swim Practice (i.e., total time-time out of the water), and ADHD status on the overall swim level. Participants significantly increased the swim level from the beginning to the end of the program (B = 0.63, 95% CI = 0.52-0.74), and participants with ASD and co-occurring ADHD had greater swim levels regardless of Time than those without ADHD (B = 0.45, 95% CI = 0.05-0.84). Overall, iCan Swim is effective in improving the swim skills of children and teenagers with ASD.

Relationships between Physical and Mental Health in Adolescents from Low-Income, Rural Communities: Univariate and Multivariate Analyses.

Environment (i.e., rural vs. urban) and socioeconomic status (SES) are moderating factors of physical (i.e., obesity and/or physical activity) and internalizing mental health (i.e., stress, anxiety, and depressive symptoms) in adolescents. Relationships between physical and mental health have been shown in adolescents; however, research has not addressed these relationships in those from low-income, rural backgrounds. Thus, the present study characterized physical and mental health in rural, low-SES adolescents and investigated relationships between physical and mental health in this population. Data were collected from 253 10th and 11th-grade students from Title I schools in rural Alabama. Self-report measures of mental health, self-esteem, body image, and physical activity were obtained, in addition to functional fitness and physical health assessments completed at each school. Relationships between mental and physical health were assessed using Pearson correlations and multivariate data-driven cluster analysis. Positive correlations were observed between body composition and mental health symptoms, while negative correlations were observed between body image and mental health and body composition. However, sex differences were present in these relationships. The multivariate cluster analysis identified groups of individuals based on profiles of mental and physical health. This individual-level analysis identified students with greater mental and/or physical health burdens (n = 53 and n = 40) who may benefit from targeted interventions. Overall, these results provide evidence of elevated mental and physical health burdens among rural, low-income adolescents. Moreover, targeted programs are needed to provide education about the relationship between physical and mental health to reduce health burdens in both domains in this population.

Effects of music tempo on perceived exertion, attention, affect, heart rate, and performance during isometric strength exercise.

This study examined the effects of slow and fast music tempi on effort-related thoughts, rating of perceived exertion (RPE), affect, heart rate, and performance during isometric strength exercises. Participants were randomly assigned to one of three conditions (no-music control, fast-tempo music, and slow-tempo music) and performed two isometric strength exercises (wall-sit and plank). RPE, attention allocation, and affect were measured during each exercise task. Participants in both the fast- and slow-tempo music conditions maintained a dissociative state for longer than those in the no-music control condition during the wall-sit exercise; however, this effect did not manifest during the plank exercise. Neither music condition influenced HR, RPE, time to volitional exhaustion, or affect. Within the first few minutes of exercise, participants exhibited an increase in HR and perceived exertion, as well as a corresponding shift towards associative attention and a high arousal state. The results are discussed with reference to potential underlying mechanisms and current theories pertaining to RPE, attention allocation, and affect.

A Systematic Review of the Effectiveness of Concussion Education Programs for Coaches and Parents of Youth Athletes.

Coach and parent concussion education programs are essential for the prevention, diagnosis, management, and return to play of youth athletes. This systematic review examined the content and efficacy (changes in knowledge, impact on concussion incidence) of concussion education programs for coaches and parents of youth and high school athletes. Six databases were searched: SPORTDiscus, Academic Search Premiere, CINAHL, PsycINFO, PubMed, and Google Scholar. Studies evaluated the use and/or efficacy of concussion education programs among coaches or parents of youth athletes. A total of 13 articles (out of 1553 articles) met selection criteria. Although different concussion education programs exist, only three have been evaluated in the literature: ACTive Athletic Concussion Training™, USA Football's Heads Up Football, and the Center for Disease Control and Prevention's HEADS UP. These programs are well liked among coaches and parents and the suggested practices are easily implemented by coaches. These programs increased concussion knowledge among coaches and parents and promoted behavioral changes among coaches to reduce the concussion risk in high school sports. Few studies have assessed the efficacy of concussion education programs on youth athlete health outcomes. No studies included a longitudinal follow up to determine the degree of knowledge retention following the intervention. While online educational programs are sufficient to improve coach knowledge, in-person training may be a more effective educational tool for reducing the incidence of youth sport concussion. Future studies addressing the efficacy of concussion education programs should include a longitudinal follow up to assess knowledge retention and fidelity.

Intervention Strategies to Elicit MVPA in Preschoolers during Outdoor Play.

Approximately 50% of preschoolers do not meet physical activity recommendations and children who reside in low-income rural communities may be further at risk for higher levels of sedentary behavior. Outdoor play is essential for preschool children; however, literature is unclear as to which types of interventions elicit moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) for all preschoolers. The aim of this study was to determine which type of intervention, physical activity or fundamental motor skill focus, elicits MVPA during outdoor play. Ninety-eight preschool children (M age = 4.48 years) from one Head Start center participated in an outdoor play intervention two days per week for 7 weeks. Classes were randomly assigned to one of four groups: fundamental motor skill focus (FMS), physical activity focus (PA), FMS and PA (FMS + PA), and control. An accelerometer worn on the hip measured MVPA. Results showed that age, sex and group assignment contributed to MVPA at the beginning of the intervention and age, sex, group assignment and MVPA during the beginning of the intervention contributed to MVPA at the end of the intervention. Overall, the FMS + PA group elicited MVPA from males and females of all ages. Interventions that combine both FMS and PA may reduce physical activity disparities in preschool children.

A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of School-Based Stress, Anxiety, and Depression Prevention Programs for Adolescents.

Given the recent rise in adolescent mental health issues, many researchers have turned to school-based mental health programs as a way to reduce stress, anxiety, and depressive symptoms among large groups of adolescents. The purpose of the current systematic review and meta-analysis is to identify and evaluate the efficacy of school-based programming aimed at reducing internalizing mental health problems of adolescents. A total of 42 articles, including a total of 7310 adolescents, ages 11-18, met inclusion for the meta-analyses. Meta-analyses were completed for each of the three mental health outcomes (stress, depression, and anxiety) and meta-regression was used to determine the influence of type of program, program dose, sex, race, and age on program effectiveness. Overall, stress interventions did not reduce stress symptoms, although targeted interventions showed greater reductions in stress than universal programs. Overall, anxiety interventions significantly reduced anxiety symptoms, however higher doses may be necessary for universal programs. Lastly, depression interventions significantly reduced depressive symptoms, but this reduction was moderated by a combination of program type, dose, race, and age group. Although, school-based programs aimed at decreasing anxiety and depression were effective, these effects are not long-lasting. Interventions aimed at reducing stress were not effective, however very few programs targeted or included stress as an outcome variable. Implications for practice, policy and research are discussed.

A systematic review of acute concussion assessment selection in research.

Background: Several organisations developed guidelines and assessments for aiding in the diagnosis of concussions. The growing number of concussion assessments increases the difficulty for researchers and clinicians to determine the best method of concussion diagnosis. Purpose: To systematically review the current assessments selected for acute sports-related concussion. Methods: Academic Search Premier, CINHAL, MEDLINE, PsycINFO and SPORTDiscus were searched. English-language, peer-review published studies of acute (<72 h) concussion assessments were included. Results: A total of 31 studies met inclusion criteria (of 291 evaluated); 27 studies provided sufficient information to be included in the descriptive statistics of the assessments. Six of these assessments were used in at least three studies. Only 12 percent of the population studied was female. The age range for these assessments was 9-67 years, although most participants ranged in age between 18 and 35 years. Conclusion: There is a need for a 'gold' standard concussion assessment to enable consistency across research and clinical outcomes. We found a large discrepancy between the number of males and females assessed, suggesting that future studies are needed to determine if these current assessments identify concussion signs and symptoms unique to females. Further studies are needed to determine which assessments are appropriate and valid for youth athletes.

Effects of cannabinoid administration for pain: A meta-analysis and meta-regression.

Chronic pain states have resulted in an overreliance on opioid pain relievers, which can carry significant risks when used long term. As such, alternative pain treatments are increasingly desired. Although emerging research suggests that cannabinoids have therapeutic potential regarding pain, results from studies across pain populations have been inconsistent. To provide meta-analytic clarification regarding cannabis's impact on subjective pain, we identified studies that assessed drug-induced pain modulations under cannabinoid and corresponding placebo conditions. A literature search yielded 25 peer-reviewed records that underwent data extraction. Baseline and end-point data were used to compute standardized effect size estimates (Cohen's d) across cannabinoid administrations (k = 39) and placebo administrations (k = 26). Standardized effects were inverse-variance weighted and pooled across studies for meta-analytic comparison. Results revealed that cannabinoid administration produced a medium-to-large effect across included studies, Cohen's d = -0.58, 95% confidence interval (CI) [-0.74, -0.43], while placebo administration produced a small-to-medium effect, Cohen's d = -0.39, 95% CI [-0.52, -0.26]. Meta-regression revealed that cannabinoids, ß = -0.43, 95% CI [-0.62, -0.24], p < .05, synthetic cannabinoids, ß = -0.39, 95% CI [-0.65, -0.14], p < .05, and sample size, ß = 0.01, 95% CI [0.00, 0.01], p < .05, were associated with marked pain reduction. These outcomes suggest that cannabinoid-based pharmacotherapies may serve as effective replacement/adjunctive options regarding pain, however, additional research is warranted. Additionally, given demonstrated neurocognitive side effects associated with some constituent cannabinoids (i.e., THC), subsequent work may consider developing novel therapeutic agents that capitalize on cannabis's analgesic properties without producing adverse effects. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Motor skills assessments: support for a general motor factor for the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2 and the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency-2.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the construct validity and model-based reliability of general and specific contributions of the subscales of the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2 (MABC-2) and Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency-2 (BOT-2) when evaluating motor skills across a range of psychiatric disorders. METHODS: Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and bifactor analysis were conducted on BOT-2 data from 187 elementary school students (grades 1 to 6) (mean age: 113 ± 20 months; boys: n = 117, 62.56%) and on MABC-2 data from 127 elementary school students (grade 1) (mean age: 76 ± 2 months; boys: n = 58, 45.67%). RESULTS: The results of the CFA fit the data for multidimensionality for the BOT-2 and presented poor fit indices for the MABC-2. For both tests, the bifactor model showed that the reliability of the subscales was poor. CONCLUSIONS: The BOT-2 exhibited factorial validity with a multidimensional structure among the current samples, but the MABC-2 showed poor fit indices, insufficient to confirm its multidimensional structure. For both tests, most of the reliable variance came from a general motor factor (M-factor), therefore the scoring and reporting of subscale scores were not justified for both tests.

Motor skills assessments: support for a general motor factor for the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2 and the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency-2 / Avaliação de habilidades motoras: suporte a um fator motor geral para o Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2 e o Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency-2

Abstract Objective To evaluate the construct validity and model-based reliability of general and specific contributions of the subscales of the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2 (MABC-2) and Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency-2 (BOT-2) when evaluating motor skills across a range of psychiatric disorders. Methods Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and bifactor analysis were conducted on BOT-2 data from 187 elementary school students (grades 1 to 6) (mean age: 113 ± 20 months; boys: n = 117, 62.56%) and on MABC-2 data from 127 elementary school students (grade 1) (mean age: 76 ± 2 months; boys: n = 58, 45.67%). Results The results of the CFA fit the data for multidimensionality for the BOT-2 and presented poor fit indices for the MABC-2. For both tests, the bifactor model showed that the reliability of the subscales was poor. Conclusions The BOT-2 exhibited factorial validity with a multidimensional structure among the current samples, but the MABC-2 showed poor fit indices, insufficient to confirm its multidimensional structure. For both tests, most of the reliable variance came from a general motor factor (M-factor), therefore the scoring and reporting of subscale scores were not justified for both tests.

Resumo Objetivo Avaliar a validade de construto e a confiabilidade das subescalas do Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2 (MABC-2) e do Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency-2 (BOT-2) com base em modelos das contribuições gerais e específicas ao avaliar habilidades motoras em transtornos psiquiátricos. Métodos Foram realizadas análise fatorial confirmatória (AFC) e análise bifatorial em dados de 187 escolares do primeiro ao sexto ano do ensino fundamental (idade média: 113 ± 20 meses; meninos: n = 117, 62,56%) que foram avaliados com o BOT-2, e em dados de 127 escolares do primeiro ano do ensino fundamental (idade média: 76 ± 2 meses; meninos: n = 58, 45,67%) avaliados com o MABC-2. Resultados Os resultados da AFC apresentaram índices de ajuste satisfatórios de multidimensionalidade para o BOT-2 e apresentaram índices de ajuste insatisfatórios para o MABC-2. Para ambos os testes, o modelo bifatorial mostrou que a confiabilidade das subescalas era ruim. Conclusão O BOT-2 apresentou validade fatorial com uma estrutura multidimensional entre as amostras utilizadas, mas o MABC-2 apresentou índices de ajuste insatisfatórios, insuficientes para confirmar sua estrutura multidimensional. Para ambos os testes, a maior parte da variância confiável veio de um fator motor geral (fator-M), portanto, a pontuação e o relato dos escores das subescalas não se justificaram para ambos os testes.

Influence of birthweight on childhood balance: Evidence from two British birth cohorts.

BACKGROUND: Birthweight is an important predictor of various fundamental aspects of childhood health and development. AIM: To examine the impact of birthweight on childhood balance performance classification and verify if this is replicable and consistent in different populations. STUDY DESIGN: Prospective birth cohort study. SUBJECTS: To describe heterogeneity in balance skills, latent class analyses were conducted separately with data from the 1958 National Child Development Study - NCDS (n = 12,778), and the 1970 British Cohort Study - BCS (n = 12,115). OUTCOME MEASURES: Four balance tasks for NCDS and five balance tasks for BCS. RESULTS: Birthweight was assessed as a predictor of balance skills. In both cohorts, two latent classes (good and poor balance skills) were identified. In both cohorts, higher birthweight was associated with a higher likelihood of having good balance skills. Boys were less likely to have good balance compared to girls. CONCLUSIONS: The results establish the reproducibility and consistency of the effect of birthweight on balance skills and point to early intervention for individuals with lower birthweight to mitigate the impact of motor impairment.

The trajectory of balance skill development from childhood to adolescence was influenced by birthweight: a latent transition analysis in a British birth cohort.

OBJECTIVE: To identify classes of balance skills and their trajectories from childhood to adolescence and the association of birthweight with these trajectories. STUDY DESIGN AND SETTING: Participants (n = 13,443) from the 1970 British Cohort Study were assessed for four balance skills in childhood and adolescence. Latent class analysis was used to determine classes of balance skills over time, and latent transition analysis was used to explain the association between birthweight and the probabilities of changing classes over time. RESULTS: A three-class solution, good balance skills (GBS) group, intermediate in balance skills (IBS) group, and poor balance skills (PBS) group, best fit the data for both childhood and adolescence. Most (49.97%, n = 6.713) had GBS in childhood and GBS in adolescence; the probability of "staying" as GBS was 86%. Birthweight was associated with higher likelihood of remaining GBS at adolescence (OR = 1.82, 95% CI = 1.40-2.37). Those who were classified as IBS and PBS in childhood had 75.2% and 62.7% probability of becoming GBS in adolescence, respectively. A small percentage of children stayed in the PBS group (1.92%, n = 258), with probability of remaining as such being 15.1%. CONCLUSIONS: The higher the birthweight, the better the outcomes in those with GBS and IBS in the childhood. However, although small proportion of children stayed at the lowest level of balance skills in adolescence, some clinical attention should be given to those classified at this level in childhood.

A new motor screening assessment for children at risk for motor disorders: construct validity.

OBJECTIVE: To develop a motor screening assessment and provide preliminary evidence of its psychometric properties. METHODS: A sample of 365 elementary school students was assessed, with structural equation modeling applied to obtain evidence of the adequacy of the factor structure of the motor screening assessment. As well, differential item functioning was used to evaluate whether various identifiable subgroups of children (i.e., sex and grade) perform particular tasks differently. RESULTS: Overall, girls obtained higher scores than boys while, for both sexes, the assessment scores increased with age. Furthermore, differential item function analysis revealed that the precision of the test was highest for those with moderate to low motor performance, suggesting that this tool would be appropriate for identifying individuals with movement difficulties. CONCLUSION: Although further tests of its psychometric properties are required, the motor screening assessment appears to be a reliable, valid, and quickly-administered tool for screening children's movements.

A new motor screening assessment for children at risk for motor disorders: construct validity / Uma nova avaliação de triagem motora para escolares de risco para transtorno motor: validade de constructo

ABSTRACT Objective: To develop a motor screening assessment and provide preliminary evidence of its psychometric properties. Methods: A sample of 365 elementary school students was assessed, with structural equation modeling applied to obtain evidence of the adequacy of the factor structure of the motor screening assessment. As well, differential item functioning was used to evaluate whether various identifiable subgroups of children (i.e., sex and grade) perform particular tasks differently. Results: Overall, girls obtained higher scores than boys while, for both sexes, the assessment scores increased with age. Furthermore, differential item function analysis revealed that the precision of the test was highest for those with moderate to low motor performance, suggesting that this tool would be appropriate for identifying individuals with movement difficulties. Conclusion: Although further tests of its psychometric properties are required, the motor screening assessment appears to be a reliable, valid, and quickly-administered tool for screening children's movements.

RESUMO Objetivo: Desenvolver uma avaliação de triagem motora (ATM) e fornecer evidências preliminares de suas propriedades psicométricas. Métodos: 365 alunos do ensino fundamental foram avaliados. Foi utilizado modelagem de equações estruturais para evidenciar a adequação da estrutura fatorial da ATM. A função diferencial do item foi utilizada para avaliar tarefas podem funcionar de forma diferente para subgrupos (ou seja, sexo e escolaridade). Resultados: Em geral, as meninas obtiveram pontuações mais altas do que os meninos e, em ambos os sexos, os escores da avaliação aumentaram com a idade. A análise da função diferencial do item revelou que a precisão do teste foi maior para aqueles com desempenho motor baixo a moderado, sugerindo que essa ferramenta seria apropriada para identificar aqueles com dificuldades motoras. Conclusão: Embora sejam necessários novos testes de suas propriedades psicométricas, a ATM parece ser uma ferramenta confiável, válida e rápida de administrar como rastreio motor para crianças.

Motor skills intervention research of children with disabilities.

BACKGROUND: Physical inactivity and obesity among children with physical and cognitive disabilities is an emerging public health issue. Children's motor skill development is a determinant of lifelong physical activity and obesity. AIMS: The purpose of this article is to critically evaluate motor skill intervention literature among children with physical and cognitive disabilities. METHODS AND PROCEDURES: Electronic searches were completed to identity research articles published from 1984 to 2014. Major findings were categorized among subtopics including characteristics of intervention studies, research designs, diagnostic method, motor skill interventions and motor skill outcome. OUTCOMES AND RESULTS: 21 studies were found and included participants with developmental delay (42.8%), autism (19.0%), cross-disability (19.0%), intellectual disability (4.8%), cerebral palsy (4.8%), developmental coordination disorder (4.8%), and learning disabilities (4.8%). Only one study was a randomized controlled trial. CONCLUSIONS: and implications: The current literature on motor skill intervention research is broad in scope and has limited generalizability within and across disability groups. Future research is needed to develop cross-disability intervention methods adaptable to disability and function-specific needs, including the utilization of rapidly developing technology. Researchers are encouraged to utilize sound methodology with robust theoretical foundations. Family and community engagement is encouraged in intervention delivery.

Associations between prenatal, childhood, and adolescent stress and variations in white-matter properties in young men.

OBJECTIVE: Previous studies have shown that both pre- and post-natal adversities, the latter including exposures to stress during childhood and adolescence, explain variation in structural properties of white matter (WM) in the brain. While previous studies have examined effects of independent stress exposures within one developmental period, such as childhood, we examine effects of stress across development using data from a prospective longitudinal study. More specifically, we ask how stressful events during prenatal development, childhood, and adolescence relate to variation in WM properties in early adulthood in young men recruited from a birth cohort. METHOD: Using data from 393 mother-son pairs from a community-based birth cohort from England (Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children), we examined how stressful life events relate to variation in different structural properties of WM in the corpus callosum and across the whole brain in early adulthood in men aged 18-21 years. We distinguish between stress occurring during three developmental periods: a) prenatal maternal stress, b) postnatal stress within the first four years of life, c) stress during adolescence (age 12-16 years). To obtain a comprehensive quantification of variation in WM, we assess structural properties of WM using four different measures, namely fractional anisotropy (FA), mean diffusivity (MD), magnetization transfer ratio (MTR) and myelin water fraction (MWF). RESULTS: The developmental model shows that prenatal stress is associated with lower MTR and MWF in the genu and/or splenium of the corpus callosum, and with lower MTR in global (lobar) WM. Stress during early childhood is associated with higher MTR in the splenium, and stress during adolescence is associated with higher MTR in the genu and lower MD in the splenium. We see no associations between postnatal stress and variation in global (lobar) WM. CONCLUSIONS: The current study found evidence for independent effects of stress on WM properties during distinct neurodevelopmental periods. We speculate that these independent effects are due to differences in the developmental processes unfolding at different developmental time points. We suggest that associations between prenatal stress and WM properties may relate to abnormalities in neurogenesis, affecting the number and density of axons, while postnatal stress may interfere with processes related to myelination or radial growth of axons. Potential consequences of prenatal glucocorticoid exposure should be considered in obstetric care.