Participatory training evaluation: Steps from the Center for Native American Health Native-CHART symposium.

This paper presents a case example of the Native-CHART Training Evaluation and describes the process of planning and administering a paper evaluation during the Native-CHART symposium in November 2019 led by the Center for Native American Health (CNAH) and an external evaluator. Training evaluation methodologies and the data collection instrument were grounded in the Health Belief Model (HBM) where health-related chronic disease and risk factor knowledge translates to perceived susceptibility, benefits, barriers, and self-efficacy. Kirkpatrick's Four-level Training Evaluation Model explored learning, reaction, behaviors, and results. The evaluation aims centered around the following questions: 1)Who attended the symposium, and why did they attend? 2)What knowledge did participants gain at the symposium? 3)Will attendees change their behaviors as a result of attending the symposium? 4) What parts of the symposium were most valuable? And 5) How can the symposium be improved? Data collected at the symposium answered these questions. After the Native-CHART symposium, CNAH staff and the external evaluator met to reflect on the steps necessary to plan and implement a participatory training evaluation. From these discussions, eight steps emerged. This paper presents these steps along with recommendations for future work. Participatory and collaborative approaches in training evaluation and the steps included in this case example may be useful to evaluators, communities, and programs working on designing and evaluating various trainings with Tribal populations.

A Model of Stakeholder Engagement with American Indians and Alaska Natives from the Native-CHART Study.

American Indian (AI) and Alaska Native (AN) community stakeholder engagement has the power to transform health research. However, the engagement and dissemination process is challenging in AIAN communities due to the historical and current negative experiences of AIAN populations in health research (Dillard et al., 2018). Whereas there is a paucity of recommendations about how to engage stakeholders in health research, from agenda-setting to proposal development, study design, recruitment, data collection, analysis, results, and dissemination (Concannon et al., 2014), there is limited information about how these recommendations are operationalized within the context of AIAN health research and practice (Concannon et al., 2014; Forsythe et al., 2016). For the purposes of this article, stakeholders are individuals, organizations, or communities who have a direct interest in the process and outcomes of a project, research, or policy effort (Boaz et al., 2018). Stakeholder engagement is a systematic process involving stakeholders, which provides opportunities for consultation, input, reviews, reactions, support, and assistance with dissemination. Dissemination focuses on how, when, by whom, and under what circumstances evidence spreads throughout agencies, organizations, states, counties, communities, tribes, researchers, policy makers, and service organizations.

American Indian and Alaska Native Life Expectancy: Writing a New Narrative.

This Viewpoint examines disparities and inequalities regarding life expectancy in American Indian and Alaska Native populations and what can be done to address them.

Status of Maternal Cardiovascular Health in American Indian and Alaska Native Individuals: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association.

Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of pregnancy-related death in the United States. American Indian and Alaska Native individuals have some of the highest maternal death and morbidity rates. Data on the causes of cardiovascular disease-related death in American Indian and Alaska Native individuals are limited, and there are several challenges and opportunities to improve maternal cardiovascular health in this population. This scientific statement provides an overview of the current status of cardiovascular health among American Indian and Alaska Native birthing individuals and causes of maternal death and morbidity and describes a stepwise multidisciplinary framework for addressing cardiovascular disease and cerebrovascular disease during the preconception, pregnancy, and postpartum time frame. This scientific statement highlights the American Heart Association's factors for cardiovascular health assessment known collectively as Life's Essential 8 as they pertain to American Indian and Alaska Native birthing individuals. It summarizes the impact of substance use, adverse mental health conditions, and lifestyle and cardiovascular disease risk factors, as well as the cascading effects of institutional and structural racism and the historical trauma faced by American Indian and Alaska Native individuals. It recognizes the possible impact of systematic acts of colonization and dominance on their social determinants of health, ultimately translating into worse health care outcomes. It focuses on the underreporting of American Indian and Alaska Native disaggregated data in pregnancy and postpartum outcomes and the importance of engaging key stakeholders, designing culturally appropriate care, building trust among communities and health care professionals, and expanding the American Indian and Alaska Native workforce in biomedical research and health care settings to optimize the cardiovascular health of American Indian and Alaska Native birthing individuals.

Tribal Perspectives on Hypertension: Results From the Center for Native American Health Native-CHART Needs Assessment.

PURPOSE AND OBJECTIVES: American Indian/Alaska Native (AI/AN) hypertension contributes to cardiovascular disease, the leading cause of premature death in this population. The purpose of this article is to document strategies, concerns, and barriers related to hypertension and cardiovascular disease from Native-Controlling Hypertension and Risks through Technology (Native-CHART) symposiums facilitated by the Center for Native American Health (CNAH). The objectives of this evaluation were to combine Health Needs Assessment (HNA) data and explore barriers and strategies related to hypertension while assessing changes in participants' perspectives over time (2017-2021). APPROACH: CNAH followed an iterative process each year for planning the HNA, facilitating the HNA, and refining and reflecting on HNA findings over time. This involved 3 interconnected steps: (1) developing a shared understanding for the HNA, "Why are we here?," (2) facilitating the HNA during annual symposiums "What do we do?," and (3) reflecting on "What did we learn?". EVALUATION METHODS: Data were collected using a culturally centered HNA co-created by the CNAH team and tribal partners. Qualitative data analysis utilized a culturally centered thematic approach and NVivo software version 12.0. Quantitative data analysis included summarizing frequency counts and descriptive statistics using Microsoft Excel. RESULTS: Over the 5-year period, 212 Native-CHART symposium participants completed HNAs. Data collected from HNAs show persistent barriers and concerns and illuminate potential strategies to address AI/AN hypertension. Future efforts must explore effective strategies that build on community strengths, culture and traditions, and existing resources. This is the path forward. IMPLICATIONS FOR PUBLIC HEALTH: CNAH's culturally centered and unique HNA approach helped assess participant perspectives over time. CNAH facilitated symposiums over multiple years, even amid a global pandemic. This demonstrates resilience and continuity of community outreach when it is needed the most. Other universities and tribal partners could benefit from this iterative approach as they work to design HNAs with tribal populations.

Psychedelic Therapies at the Crossroads of Trauma and Substance Use: Historical Perspectives and Future Directions, Taking a Lead From New Mexico.

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), a common condition with potentially devastating individual, family, and societal consequences, is highly associated with substance use disorders (SUDs). The association between PTSD and SUD is complex and may involve adverse childhood experiences (ACEs), historical and multi-generational traumas, and social determinants of health as well as cultural and spiritual contexts. Current psychosocial and pharmacological treatments for PTSD are only modestly effective, and there is a need for more research on therapeutic interventions for co-occurring PTSD and SUD, including whether to provide integrated or sequential treatments. There is a current resurgence of interest in psychedelics as potential treatment augmentation for PTSD and SUDs with an appreciation of the risks in this target population. This paper reviews the historical perspective of psychedelic research and practices, as well as the intersection of historical trauma, ACEs, PTSD, and SUDs through the lens of New Mexico. New Mexico is a state with high populations of Indigenous and Hispanic peoples as well as high rates of trauma, PTSD, and SUDs. Researchers in New Mexico have been leaders in psychedelic research. Future directions for psychedelic researchers to consider are discussed, including the importance of community-based participatory approaches that are more inclusive and respectful of Indigenous and other minority communities.

The Healthy Children, Strong Families 2 (HCSF2) Randomized Controlled Trial Improved Healthy Behaviors in American Indian Families with Young Children.

BACKGROUND: American Indian (AI) families experience a disproportionate risk of obesity due to a number of complex reasons, including poverty, historic trauma, rural isolation or urban loss of community connections, lack of access to healthy foods and physical activity opportunities, and high stress. Home-based obesity prevention interventions are lacking for these families. OBJECTIVE: Healthy Children, Strong Families 2 (HCSF2) was a randomized controlled trial of a healthy lifestyle promotion/obesity prevention intervention for AI families. METHODS: Four hundred and fifty dyads consisting of an adult primary caregiver and a child ages 2 to 5 y from 5 AI communities were randomly assigned to a monthly mailed healthy lifestyle intervention toolkit (Wellness Journey) with social support or to a child safety control toolkit (Safety Journey) for 1 y. The Wellness Journey toolkit targeted increased fruit/vegetable (F/V) intake and physical activity, improved sleep, decreased added sugar intake and screen time, and improved stress management (adults only). Anthropometrics were collected, and health behaviors were assessed via survey at baseline and at the end of Year 1. Adults completed surveys for themselves and the participating child. Repeated measures analysis of variance was used to assess change over the intervention period. RESULTS: Significant improvements to adult and child healthy diet patterns, adult F/V intake, adult moderate-to-vigorous physical activity, home nutrition environment, and adult self-efficacy for health behavior change were observed in Wellness Journey compared with Safety Journey families. No changes were observed in adult body mass index (BMI), child BMI z-score, adult stress measures, adult/child sleep and screen time, or child physical activity. Qualitative feedback suggests the intervention was extremely well-received by both the families and our community partners across the 5 participating sites. CONCLUSIONS: This multi-site community-engaged intervention addressed key gaps regarding family home-based approaches for early obesity prevention in AI communities and showed several significant improvements in health behaviors. Multiple communities are working to sustain intervention efforts. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT01776255.

Predictors of Overweight and Obesity in American Indian Families With Young Children.

OBJECTIVE: To describe sociodemographic factors and health behaviors among American Indian (AI) families with young children and determine predictors of adult and child weight status among these factors. DESIGN: Descriptive, cross-sectional baseline data. SETTING: One urban area and 4 rural AI reservations nationwide. PARTICIPANTS: A total of 450 AI families with children aged 2-5 years participating in the Healthy Children, Strong Families 2 intervention. INTERVENTION: Baseline data from a healthy lifestyles intervention. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Child body mass index (BMI) z-score and adult BMI, and multiple healthy lifestyle outcomes. ANALYSIS: Descriptive statistics and stepwise regression. RESULTS: Adult and child combined overweight and obesity rates were high: 82% and 40%, respectively. Food insecurity was high (61%). Multiple lifestyle behaviors, including fruit and vegetable and sugar-sweetened beverage consumption, adult physical activity, and child screen time, did not meet national recommendations. Adult sleep was adequate but children had low overnight sleep duration of 10 h/d. Significant predictors of child obesity included more adults in the household (P = .003; ß = 0.153), an adult AI caregiver (P = .02; ß = 0.116), high adult BMI (P = .001; ß = 0.176), gestational diabetes, high child birth weight (P < .001; ß = 0.247), and the family activity and nutrition score (P = .04; ß = 0.130). CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: We found multiple child-, adult-, and household-level factors influence early childhood obesity in AI children, highlighting the need for interventions to mitigate the modifiable factors identified in this study, including early life influences, home environments, and health behaviors.

Recruiting American Indian/Alaska Native Students to Medical School: A Multi-Institutional Alliance in the U.S. Southwest.

PROBLEM: Despite national efforts to diversify the physician workforce, American Indian/Alaska Native (AI/AN) individuals have the least representation of all major racial and ethnic groups. Limited resources at state medical schools present institution-level recruitment challenges. Unified efforts to engage AI/AN students in premedical education activities are needed. APPROACH: The medical schools at the Universities of Arizona (Phoenix and Tucson), Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah identified a collective need to increase student diversity, particularly with regard to AI/AN students. The schools partnered with the Association of American Indian Physicians to support AI/AN students applying to medical school and to grow the overall AI/AN applicant pool. Each year from 2011 to 2016, these institutions hosted a two-day preadmissions workshop (PAW) to prepare participants for applying to medical school. OUTCOMES: From 2011 to 2016, 130 AI/AN students participated in the PAWs. Of these, 113 were first-time attendees, 15 participated on two separate occasions, and 1 participated on three separate occasions. Nineteen (21%) of the 90 first-time participants from 2011 to 2015 matriculated to a U.S. medical school in the past five years. Twenty-two of 23 participants (96% response rate) in 2016 responded to the postworkshop survey. Results indicated that interview preparation, individual consultation, and writing preparation ranked as the three most beneficial sessions/activities. NEXT STEPS: Standardized evaluation of future PAWs will identify best practices for recruiting AI/AN students to medical school, and future initiatives will include more robust measures of success.

Household food insecurity and dietary patterns in rural and urban American Indian families with young children.

BACKGROUND: High food insecurity has been demonstrated in rural American Indian households, but little is known about American Indian families in urban settings or the association of food insecurity with diet for these families. The purpose of this study was to examine the prevalence of food insecurity in American Indian households by urban-rural status, correlates of food insecurity in these households, and the relationship between food insecurity and diet in these households. METHODS: Dyads consisting of an adult caregiver and a child (2-5 years old) from the same household in five urban and rural American Indian communities were included. Demographic information was collected, and food insecurity was assessed using two validated items from the USDA Household Food Security Survey. Factors associated with food insecurity were examined using logistic regression. Child and adult diets were assessed using food screeners. Coping strategies were assessed through focus group discussions. These cross-sectional baseline data were collected from 2/2013 through 4/2015 for the Healthy Children, Strong Families 2 randomized controlled trial of a healthy lifestyles intervention for American Indian families. RESULTS: A high prevalence of food insecurity was determined (61%) and was associated with American Indian ethnicity, lower educational level, single adult households, WIC participation, and urban settings (p = 0.05). Food insecure adults had significantly lower intake of vegetables (p < 0.05) and higher intakes of fruit juice (<0.001), other sugar-sweetened beverages (p < 0.05), and fried potatoes (p < 0.001) than food secure adults. Food insecure children had significantly higher intakes of fried potatoes (p < 0.05), soda (p = 0.01), and sports drinks (p < 0.05). Focus group participants indicated different strategies were used by urban and rural households to address food insecurity. CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of food insecurity in American Indian households in our sample is extremely high, and geographic designation may be an important contributing factor. Moreover, food insecurity had a significant negative influence on dietary intake for families. Understanding strategies employed by households may help inform future interventions to address food insecurity. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ( NCT01776255 ). Registered: January 16, 2013. Date of enrollment: February 6, 2013.

Healthy Children, Strong Families 2: A randomized controlled trial of a healthy lifestyle intervention for American Indian families designed using community-based approaches.

Background/Aims Few obesity prevention trials have focused on young children and their families in the home environment, particularly in underserved communities. Healthy Children, Strong Families 2 is a randomized controlled trial of a healthy lifestyle intervention for American Indian children and their families, a group at very high risk of obesity. The study design resulted from our long-standing engagement with American Indian communities, and few collaborations of this type resulting in the development and implementation of a randomized clinical trial have been described. Methods Healthy Children, Strong Families 2 is a lifestyle intervention targeting increased fruit and vegetable intake, decreased sugar intake, increased physical activity, decreased TV/screen time, and two less-studied risk factors: stress and sleep. Families with young children from five American Indian communities nationwide were randomly assigned to a healthy lifestyle intervention ( Wellness Journey) augmented with social support (Facebook and text messaging) or a child safety control group ( Safety Journey) for 1 year. After Year 1, families in the Safety Journey receive the Wellness Journey, and families in the Wellness Journey start the Safety Journey with continued wellness-focused social support based on communities' request that all families receive the intervention. Primary (adult body mass index and child body mass index z-score) and secondary (health behaviors) outcomes are assessed after Year 1 with additional analyses planned after Year 2. Results To date, 450 adult/child dyads have been enrolled (100% target enrollment). Statistical analyses await trial completion in 2017. Lessons learned Conducting a community-partnered randomized controlled trial requires significant formative work, relationship building, and ongoing flexibility. At the communities' request, the study involved minimal exclusion criteria, focused on wellness rather than obesity, and included an active control group and a design allowing all families to receive the intervention. This collective effort took additional time but was critical to secure community engagement. Hiring and retaining qualified local site coordinators was a challenge but was strongly related to successful recruitment and retention of study families. Local infrastructure has also been critical to project success. Other challenges included geographic dispersion of study communities and providing appropriate incentives to retain families in a 2-year study. Conclusion This multisite intervention addresses key gaps regarding family/home-based approaches for obesity prevention in American Indian communities. Healthy Children, Strong Families 2's innovative aspects include substantial community input, inclusion of both traditional (diet/activity) and less-studied obesity risk factors (stress/sleep), measurement of both adult and child outcomes, social networking support for geographically dispersed households, and a community selected active control group. Our data will address a literature gap regarding multiple risk factors and their relationship to health outcomes in American Indian families.

Development of a Culturally Informed Child Safety Curriculum for American Indian Families.

American Indian (AI) children are disproportionately affected by unintentional injuries, with injury mortality rates approximately 2.3 times higher than the combined rates for all children in the United States. Although multiple risk factors are known to contribute to these increased rates, a comprehensive, culturally informed curriculum that emphasizes child safety is lacking for this population. In response to this need, academic and tribal researchers, tribal community members, tribal wellness staff, and national child safety experts collaborated to develop a novel child safety curriculum. This paper describes its development and community delivery. We developed the safety curriculum as part of a larger randomized controlled trial known as Healthy Children, Strong Families 2 (HCSF2), a family-based intervention targeting obesity prevention in early childhood (2-5 years). During the development of the HCSF2 intervention, participating tribal communities expressed concern about randomizing enrolled families to a control group who would not receive an intervention. To address this concern and the significant disparities in injuries and unintentional death rates among AI children, we added an active control group (Safety Journey) that would utilize our safety curriculum. Satisfaction surveys administered at the 12-month time point of the intervention indicate 94% of participants (N = 196) were either satisfied or very satisfied with the child safety curriculum. The majority of participants (69%) reported spending more than 15 min with the curriculum materials each month, and 83% thought the child safety newsletters were either helpful or very helpful in making changes to improve their family's safety. These findings indicate these child safety materials have been well received by HCSF2 participants. The use of community-engaged approaches to develop this curriculum represents a model that could be adapted for other at-risk populations and serves as an initial step toward the creation of a multi-level child safety intervention strategy.

The Healthy Children, Strong Families intervention: design and community participation.

Healthy Children, Strong Families (HCSF) is a 2-year, community-driven, family-based randomized controlled trial of a healthy lifestyles intervention conducted in partnership with four Wisconsin American Indian tribes. HCSF is composed of 1 year of targeted home visits to deliver nutritional and physical activity curricula. During Year 1, trained community mentors work with 2-5-year-old American Indian children and their primary caregivers to promote goal-based behavior change. During Year 2, intervention families receive monthly newsletters and attend monthly group meetings to participate in activities designed to reinforce and sustain changes made in Year 1. Control families receive only curricula materials during Year 1 and monthly newsletters during Year 2. Each of the two arms of the study comprises 60 families. Primary outcomes are decreased child body mass index (BMI) z-score and decreased primary caregiver BMI. Secondary outcomes include: increased fruit/vegetable consumption, decreased TV viewing, increased physical activity, decreased soda/sweetened drink consumption, improved primary caregiver biochemical indices, and increased primary caregiver self-efficacy to adopt healthy behaviors. Using community-based participatory research and our history of university-tribal partnerships, the community and academic researchers jointly designed this randomized trial. This article describes the study design and data collection strategies, including outcome measures, with emphasis on the communities' input in all aspects of the research.

Psychological distress among Plains Indian mothers with children referred to screening for Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders.

BACKGROUND: Psychological distress (PD) includes symptoms of depression and anxiety and is associated with considerable emotional suffering, social dysfunction and, often, with problematic alcohol use. The rate of current PD among American Indian women is approximately 2.5 times higher than that of U.S. women in general. Our study aims to fill the current knowledge gap about the prevalence and characteristics of PD and its association with self-reported current drinking problems among American Indian mothers whose children were referred to screening for fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD). METHODS: Secondary analysis of cross-sectional data was conducted from maternal interviews of referred American Indian mothers (n = 152) and a comparison group of mothers (n = 33) from the same Plains culture tribes who participated in an NIAAA-funded epidemiology study of FASD. Referred women were from one of six Plains Indian reservation communities and one urban area who bore children suspected of having an FASD. A 6-item PD scale (PD-6, Cronbach's alpha = .86) was constructed with a summed score range of 0-12 and a cut-point of 7 indicating serious PD. Multiple statistical tests were used to examine the characteristics of PD and its association with self-reported current drinking problems. RESULTS: Referred and comparison mothers had an average age of 31.3 years but differed (respectively) on: education (

Reducing health disparities through a culturally centered mentorship program for minority faculty: the Southwest Addictions Research Group (SARG) experience.

PURPOSE: Ethnic minority faculty members are vastly underrepresented in academia. Yet, the presence of these individuals in academic institutions is crucial, particularly because their professional endeavors often target issues of health disparities. One promising way to attract and retain ethnic minority faculty is to provide them with formal mentorship. This report describes a culturally centered mentorship program, the Southwest Addictions Research Group (SARG, 2003-2007), at the University of New Mexico (UNM) that trained a cadre of minority researchers dedicated to reducing health disparities associated with substance abuse. METHOD: The SARG was based at UNM's School of Medicine's Institute for Public Health, in partnership with the UNM's Center on Alcoholism, Substance Abuse, and Addictions. The program consisted of regular research meetings, collaboration with the Community Advisory Board, monthly symposia with renowned professionals, pilot projects, and conference support. The authors collected data on mentee research productivity as outcomes and conducted separate mentee and mentor focus-group interviews to assess the strengths and weaknesses of the SARG program. RESULTS: The SARG yielded positive outcomes as evidenced by mentee increase in grant submissions, publications, and professional presentations. Focus-group qualitative data highlighted program and institutional barriers as well as successes that surfaced during the program. Based on this evaluation, a Culturally Centered Mentorship Model (CCMM) emerged. CONCLUSIONS: The CCMM can help counter institutional challenges by valuing culture, community service, and community-based participatory research to support the recruitment and advancement of ethnic minority faculty members in academia.

Intimate partner violence and alcohol, drug, and mental disorders among American Indian women in primary care.

The relationship of intimate partner violence (IPV) with mental disorders was investigated among 234 American Indian/Alaska Native female primary care patients. Results indicated that unadjusted prevalence ratios for severe physical or sexual abuse (relative to no IPV) were significant for anxiety, PTSD, mood, and any mental disorder. Adjusted prevalence ratios showed severe physical or sexual IPV to be associated with any mood disorder. Patterns of IPV and mental health have implications for detection and service utilization.

Reflections on a proposed theory of reservation-dwelling American Indian alcohol use: comment on Spillane and Smith (2007).

In their recent article, N. Spillane and G. Smith suggested that reservation-dwelling American Indians have higher rates of problem drinking than do either non-American Indians or those American Indians living in nonreservation settings. These authors further argued that problematic alcohol use patterns in reservation communities are due to the lack of contingencies between drinking and "standard life reinforcers" (SLRs), such as employment, housing, education, and health care. This comment presents evidence that these arguments were based on a partial review of the literature. Weaknesses in the application of SLR constructs to American Indian reservation communities are identified as is the need for culturally contextualized empirical evidence supporting this theory and its application. Cautionary notes are offered about the development of literature reviews, theoretical frameworks, and policy recommendations for American Indian communities.