Tailoring On-Surface Molecular Reactions and Assembly through Hydrogen-Modified Synthesis: From Triarylamine Monomer to 2D Covalent Organic Framework.

Relative to conventional wet-chemical synthesis techniques, on-surface synthesis of organic networks in ultrahigh vacuum has few control parameters. The molecular deposition rate and substrate temperature are typically the only synthesis variables to be adjusted dynamically. Here we demonstrate that reducing conditions in the vacuum environment can be created and controlled without dedicated sources─relying only on backfilled hydrogen gas and ion gauge filaments─and can dramatically influence the Ullmann-like on-surface reaction used for synthesizing two-dimensional covalent organic frameworks (2D COFs). Using tribromo dimethylmethylene-bridged triphenylamine ((Br3)DTPA) as monomer precursors, we find that atomic hydrogen (H•) blocks aryl-aryl bond formation to such an extent that we suspect this reaction may be a factor in limiting the ultimate size of 2D COFs created through on-surface synthesis. Conversely, we show that control of the relative monomer and hydrogen fluxes can be used to produce large self-assembled islands of monomers, dimers, or macrocycle hexamers, which are of interest in their own right. On-surface synthesis of oligomers, from a single precursor, circumvents potential challenges with their protracted wet-chemical synthesis and with multiple deposition sources. Using scanning tunneling microscopy and spectroscopy (STM/STS), we show that changes in the electronic states through this oligomer sequence provide an insightful view of the 2D COF (synthesized in the absence of atomic hydrogen) as the end point in an evolution of electronic structures from the monomer.

Recent Developments in C-H Activation for Materials Science in the Center for Selective C-H Activation.

Abstract: Organic electronics is a rapidly growing field driven in large part by the synthesis of ∏-conjugated molecules and polymers. Traditional aryl cross-coupling reactions such as the Stille and Suzuki have been used extensively in the synthesis of ∏-conjugated molecules and polymers, but the synthesis of intermediates necessary for traditional cross-couplings can include multiple steps with toxic and hazardous reagents. Direct arylation through C-H bond activation has the potential to reduce the number of steps and hazards while being more atom-economical. Within the Center for Selective C-H Functionalization (CCHF), we have been developing C-H activation methodology for the synthesis of ∏-conjugated materials of interest, including direct arylation of difficult-to-functionalize electron acceptor intermediates and living polymerization of ∏-conjugated polymers through C-H activation.

Rapid, Low Temperature Formation of Imine-Linked Covalent Organic Frameworks Catalyzed by Metal Triflates.

Imine-linked two-dimensional covalent organic frameworks (2D COFs) are crystalline polymer networks with enhanced stability compared to boronate ester-linked systems and with broad monomer scope. They are traditionally prepared by condensing polyfunctional aldehydes and amines at elevated temperature in a mixture of organic solvents and aqueous CH3CO2H, which catalyzes imine formation and exchange. Here we employ metal triflates, which are water-tolerant Lewis acids, to accelerate 2D imine-linked COF synthesis and improve their materials quality. Low catalyst loadings provide crystalline polymer networks in nearly quantitative yields. These conditions are demonstrated for several COFs, including heteroatom-containing systems of interest for optoelectronic applications.

Influence of Molecular Aggregation on Electron Transfer at the Perylene Diimide/Indium-Tin Oxide Interface.

Chemisorption of an organic monolayer to tune the surface properties of a transparent conductive oxide (TCO) electrode can improve the performance of organic electronic devices that rely on efficient charge transfer between an organic active layer and a TCO contact. Here, a series of perylene diimides (PDIs) was synthesized and used to study relationships between monolayer structure/properties and electron transfer kinetics at PDI-modified indium-tin oxide (ITO) electrodes. In these PDI molecules, one of the imide substituents is a benzene ring bearing a phosphonic acid (PA) and the other is a bulky aryl group that is twisted out of the plane of the PDI core. The size of the bulky aryl group and the substitution of the benzene ring bearing the PA were both varied, which altered the extent of aggregation when these molecules were absorbed as monolayer films (MLs) on ITO, as revealed by both attenuated total reflectance (ATR) and total internal reflection fluorescence spectra. Polarized ATR measurements indicate that, in these MLs, the long axis of the PDI core is tilted at an angle of 33-42° relative to the surface normal; the tilt angle increased as the degree of bulky substitution increased. Rate constants for electron transfer (ks,opt) between these redox-active modifiers and ITO were determined by potential-modulated ATR spectroscopy. As the degree of PDI aggregation was reduced, ks,opt declined, which is attributed to a reduction in the lateral electron self-exchange rate between adsorbed PDI molecules, as well as the heterogeneous conductivity of the ITO electrode surface. Photoelectrochemical measurements using a dissolved aluminum phthalocyanine as an electron donor showed that ITO modified with any of these PDIs is a more effective electron-collecting electrode than bare ITO.

Facile Incorporation of Pd(PPh3)2Hal Substituents into Polymethines, Merocyanines, and Perylene Diimides as a Means of Suppressing Intermolecular Interactions.

Compounds with polarizable π systems that are susceptible to attack with nucleophiles at C-Hal (Hal = Cl, Br) bonds react with Pd(PPh3)4 to yield net oxidative addition. X-ray structures show that the resulting Pd(PPh3)2Hal groups greatly reduce intermolecular π-π interactions. The Pd-functionalized dyes generally exhibit solution-like absorption spectra in films, whereas their Hal analogues exhibit features attributable to aggregation.

High-Performance Electron Acceptor with Thienyl Side Chains for Organic Photovoltaics.

We develop an efficient fused-ring electron acceptor (ITIC-Th) based on indacenodithieno[3,2-b]thiophene core and thienyl side-chains for organic solar cells (OSCs). Relative to its counterpart with phenyl side-chains (ITIC), ITIC-Th shows lower energy levels (ITIC-Th: HOMO = -5.66 eV, LUMO = -3.93 eV; ITIC: HOMO = -5.48 eV, LUMO = -3.83 eV) due to the σ-inductive effect of thienyl side-chains, which can match with high-performance narrow-band-gap polymer donors and wide-band-gap polymer donors. ITIC-Th has higher electron mobility (6.1 × 10(-4) cm(2) V(-1) s(-1)) than ITIC (2.6 × 10(-4) cm(2) V(-1) s(-1)) due to enhanced intermolecular interaction induced by sulfur-sulfur interaction. We fabricate OSCs by blending ITIC-Th acceptor with two different low-band-gap and wide-band-gap polymer donors. In one case, a power conversion efficiency of 9.6% was observed, which rivals some of the highest efficiencies for single junction OSCs based on fullerene acceptors.

C-H-Activated Direct Arylation of Strong Benzothiadiazole and Quinoxaline-Based Electron Acceptors.

Electron acceptors are important components of π-conjugated materials, but the strong electron-withdrawing properties of the required synthetic intermediates often make them poor substrates in synthetic schemes designed around conventional organometallic cross-coupling. Here, strong benzodiimine-based acceptors, including 5,6-difluoro[2,1,3]benzothiadiazole, 5,6-dicyano[2,1,3]benzothiadiazole, 5,6-dicyanobenzo[d][1,2,3]triazole, 6,7-dicyanoquinoxaline, and 6,7-dinitroquinoxaline, are shown to undergo facile palladium-catalyzed C-H direct arylation with a variety of bromoarenes in moderate to high yields. The electrochemical characteristics of di-2-thienyl derivatives synthesized using this methodology are compared and suggest that, in an electron-transfer sense, 5,6-dicyano[2,1,3]benzothiadiazole is a comparably strong acceptor to benzo[1,2-c:4,5-c']bis[1,2,5]thiadiazole. The synthetic results suggest that high electron-withdrawing ability, which has traditionally limited reaction yields and structural variety in organic electronic materials, may be advantageous when employing C-H activated direct arylation in certain circumstances.

Controllable direct arylation: fast route to symmetrical and unsymmetrical 4,7-diaryl-5,6-difluoro-2,1,3-benzothiadiazole derivatives for organic optoelectronic materials.

Arylation in the 4- and 7-positions of 2,1,3-benzothiadiazole (BT) and its monofluoro- (MFBT) and difluoro- (DFBT) derivatives by (hetero)aryl bromides using Pd-catalyzed C­H activation has been investigated. MFBT and DFBT can be diarylated in moderate to high yields (up to 96% for DFBT) by a variety of aryl bromides. DFBT can be sequentially arylated using two different aryl bromides to give differentially substituted DFBT derivatives. The moderate to high yields of doubly arylated MFBT and DFBT and the ability to obtain differentially substituted products can be applied to a variety of organic photonic and electronic materials.

Acetylenic Cyclophanes as Fullerene Precursors: Formation of C60 H6 and C60 by Laser Desorption Mass Spectrometry of C60 H6 (CO)12.

A logical precursor of macrocycle C60 H6 , cyclophane C60 H6 (CO)12 (1) represents a building block in a possible total synthesis of C60 . In Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance laser desorption mass spectroscopic experiments in the negative-ion mode, 1 fragments to C60 H6 (2) under successive loss of CO. Further loss of six H atoms and rearrangement gives C60 ions with a fullerenic structure.