The Iminosugar AMP-DNM Improves Satiety and Activates Brown Adipose Tissue Through GLP1.

Obesity is taking on worldwide epidemic proportions, yet effective pharmacological agents with long-term efficacy remain unavailable. Previously, we designed the iminosugar N-adamantine-methyloxypentyl-deoxynojirimycin (AMP-DNM), which potently improves glucose homeostasis by lowering excessive glycosphingolipids. Here we show that AMP-DNM promotes satiety and activates brown adipose tissue (BAT) in obese rodents. Moreover, we demonstrate that the mechanism mediating these favorable actions depends on oral, but not central, administration of AMP-DNM, which ultimately stimulates systemic glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP1) secretion. We evidence an essential role of brain GLP1 receptors (GLP1r), as AMP-DNM fails to promote satiety and activate BAT in mice lacking the brain GLP1r as well as in mice treated intracerebroventricularly with GLP1r antagonist exendin-9. In conclusion, AMP-DNM markedly ameliorates metabolic abnormalities in obese rodents by restoring satiety and activating BAT through central GLP1r, while improving glucose homeostasis by mechanisms independent of central GLP1r.

Central GLP-1 receptor signalling accelerates plasma clearance of triacylglycerol and glucose by activating brown adipose tissue in mice.

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS: Glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) receptor (GLP-1R) agonism, used in the treatment of type 2 diabetes, has recently been shown to increase thermogenesis via the brain. As brown adipose tissue (BAT) produces heat by burning triacylglycerol (TG) and takes up glucose for de novo lipogenesis, the aim of this study was to evaluate the potential of chronic central GLP-1R activation by exendin-4 to facilitate clearance of lipids and glucose from the circulation by activating BAT. METHODS: Lean and diet-induced obese (DIO) C57Bl/6J mice were used to explore the effect of a 5 day intracerebroventricular infusion of the GLP-1 analogue exendin-4 or vehicle on lipid and glucose uptake by BAT in both insulin-sensitive and insulin-resistant conditions. RESULTS: Central administration of exendin-4 in lean mice increased sympathetic outflow towards BAT and white adipose tissue (WAT), resulting in increased thermogenesis as evidenced by increased uncoupling protein 1 (UCP-1) protein levels and decreased lipid content, while the uptake of TG-derived fatty acids was increased in both BAT and WAT. Interestingly, in DIO mice, the effects on WAT were blunted, while exendin-4 still increased sympathetic outflow towards BAT and increased the uptake of plasma TG-derived fatty acids and glucose by BAT. These effects were accompanied by increased fat oxidation, lower plasma TG and glucose concentrations, and reduced body weight. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION: Collectively, our results suggest that BAT activation may be a major contributor to the glucose- and TG-lowering effects of GLP-1R agonism.

Inhibition of the central melanocortin system decreases brown adipose tissue activity.

The melanocortin system is an important regulator of energy balance, and melanocortin 4 receptor (MC4R) deficiency is the most common monogenic cause of obesity. We investigated whether the relationship between melanocortin system activity and energy expenditure (EE) is mediated by brown adipose tissue (BAT) activity. Therefore, female APOE*3-Leiden.CETP transgenic mice were fed a Western-type diet for 4 weeks and infused intracerebroventricularly with the melanocortin 3/4 receptor (MC3/4R) antagonist SHU9119 or vehicle for 2 weeks. SHU9119 increased food intake (+30%) and body fat (+50%) and decreased EE by reduction in fat oxidation (-42%). In addition, SHU9119 impaired the uptake of VLDL-TG by BAT. In line with this, SHU9119 decreased uncoupling protein-1 levels in BAT (-60%) and induced large intracellular lipid droplets, indicative of severely disturbed BAT activity. Finally, SHU9119-treated mice pair-fed to the vehicle-treated group still exhibited these effects, indicating that MC4R inhibition impairs BAT activity independent of food intake. These effects were not specific to the APOE*3-Leiden.CETP background as SHU9119 also inhibited BAT activity in wild-type mice. We conclude that inhibition of central MC3/4R signaling impairs BAT function, which is accompanied by reduced EE, thereby promoting adiposity. We anticipate that activation of MC4R is a promising strategy to combat obesity by increasing BAT activity.

The brain modulates insulin sensitivity in multiple tissues.

Insulin sensitivity is determined by direct effects of circulating insulin on metabolically active tissues in combination with indirect effects of circulating insulin, i.e. via the central nervous system. The dose-response effects of insulin differ between the various physiological effects of insulin. At lower insulin concentrations, circulating insulin inhibits endogenous glucose production through a combination of direct and indirect effects. At higher insulin concentrations, circulating insulin also stimulates glucose uptake and fatty acid uptake in adipose tissue, again through direct and indirect effects. High-fat diet induces insulin resistance in the central nervous system, which contributes considerably to overall insulin resistance of liver and peripheral tissues. Central insulin resistance is amendable to therapeutic intervention, reflected in the central effects of topiramate and glucagon-like peptide-1 on hepatic and peripheral insulin resistance in insulin resistant mice.

Sympathetic nervous system control of triglyceride metabolism: novel concepts derived from recent studies.

Important players in triglyceride (TG) metabolism include the liver (production), white adipose tissue (WAT) (storage), heart and skeletal muscle (combustion to generate ATP), and brown adipose tissue (BAT) (combustion toward heat), the collective action of which determine plasma TG levels. Interestingly, recent evidence points to a prominent role of the hypothalamus in TG metabolism through innervating the liver, WAT, and BAT mainly via sympathetic branches of the autonomic nervous system. Here, we review the recent findings in the area of sympathetic control of TG metabolism. Various neuronal populations, such as neuropeptide Y (NPY)-expressing neurons and melanocortin-expressing neurons, as well as peripherally produced hormones (i.e., GLP-1, leptin, and insulin), modulate sympathetic outflow from the hypothalamus toward target organs and thereby influence peripheral TG metabolism. We conclude that sympathetic stimulation in general increases lipolysis in WAT, enhances VLDL-TG production by the liver, and increases the activity of BAT with respect to lipolysis of TG, followed by combustion of fatty acids toward heat. Moreover, the increased knowledge about the involvement of the neuroendocrine system in TG metabolism presented in this review offers new therapeutic options to fight hypertriglyceridemia by specifically modulating sympathetic nervous system outflow toward liver, BAT, or WAT.

GLP-1 receptor activation inhibits VLDL production and reverses hepatic steatosis by decreasing hepatic lipogenesis in high-fat-fed APOE*3-Leiden mice.

OBJECTIVE: In addition to improve glucose intolerance, recent studies suggest that glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor agonism also decreases triglyceride (TG) levels. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of GLP-1 receptor agonism on very-low-density lipoprotein (VLDL)-TG production and liver TG metabolism. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH: The GLP-1 peptide analogues CNTO3649 and exendin-4 were continuously administered subcutaneously to high fat diet-fed APOE*3-Leiden transgenic mice. After 4 weeks, hepatic VLDL production, lipid content, and expression profiles of selected genes involved in lipid metabolism were determined. RESULTS: CNTO3649 and exendin-4 reduced fasting plasma glucose (up to -30% and -28% respectively) and insulin (-43% and -65% respectively). In addition, these agents reduced VLDL-TG production (-36% and -54% respectively) and VLDL-apoB production (-36% and -43% respectively), indicating reduced production of VLDL particles rather than reduced lipidation of apoB. Moreover, they markedly decreased hepatic content of TG (-39% and -55% respectively), cholesterol (-30% and -55% respectively), and phospholipids (-23% and -36% respectively), accompanied by down-regulation of expression of genes involved in hepatic lipogenesis (Srebp-1c, Fasn, Dgat1) and apoB synthesis (Apob). CONCLUSION: GLP-1 receptor agonism reduces VLDL production and hepatic steatosis in addition to an improvement of glycemic control. These data suggest that GLP-receptor agonists could reduce hepatic steatosis and ameliorate dyslipidemia in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus.

Circulating insulin stimulates fatty acid retention in white adipose tissue via KATP channel activation in the central nervous system only in insulin-sensitive mice.

Insulin signaling in the central nervous system (CNS) is required for the inhibitory effect of insulin on glucose production. Our aim was to determine whether the CNS is also involved in the stimulatory effect of circulating insulin on the tissue-specific retention of fatty acid (FA) from plasma. In wild-type mice, hyperinsulinemic-euglycemic clamp conditions stimulated the retention of both plasma triglyceride-derived FA and plasma albumin-bound FA in the various white adipose tissues (WAT) but not in other tissues, including brown adipose tissue (BAT). Intracerebroventricular (ICV) administration of insulin induced a similar pattern of tissue-specific FA partitioning. This effect of ICV insulin administration was not associated with activation of the insulin signaling pathway in adipose tissue. ICV administration of tolbutamide, a K(ATP) channel blocker, considerably reduced (during hyperinsulinemic-euglycemic clamp conditions) and even completely blocked (during ICV administration of insulin) WAT-specific retention of FA from plasma. This central effect of insulin was absent in CD36-deficient mice, indicating that CD36 is the predominant FA transporter in insulin-stimulated FA retention by WAT. In diet-induced insulin-resistant mice, these stimulating effects of insulin (circulating or ICV administered) on FA retention in WAT were lost. In conclusion, in insulin-sensitive mice, circulating insulin stimulates tissue-specific partitioning of plasma-derived FA in WAT in part through activation of K(ATP) channels in the CNS. Apparently, circulating insulin stimulates fatty acid uptake in WAT but not in BAT, directly and indirectly through the CNS.

GLP-1 treatment reduces endogenous insulin resistance via activation of central GLP-1 receptors in mice fed a high-fat diet.

Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) improves insulin sensitivity in humans and rodents. It is currently unknown to what extent the (metabolic) effects of GLP-1 treatment are mediated by central GLP-1 receptors. We studied the impact of central GLP-1 receptor (GLP-1R) antagonism on the metabolic effects of peripheral GLP-1 administration in mice. High-fat-fed insulin-resistant C57Bl/6 mice were treated with continuous subcutaneous infusion of GLP-1 or saline (PBS) for 2 wk, whereas the GLP-1R antagonist exendin-9 (EX-9) and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) were simultaneously infused in the left lateral cerebral ventricle (icv). Glucose and glycerol turnover were determined during a hyperinsulinemic euglycemic clamp. VLDL-triglyceride (VLDL-TG) production was determined in hyperinsulinemic conditions. Our data show that the rate of glucose infusion necessary to maintain euglycemia was significantly increased by GLP-1. Simultaneous icv infusion of EX-9 diminished this effect by 62%. The capacities of insulin to stimulate glucose disposal and inhibit glucose production were reinforced by GLP-1. Simultaneous icv infusion of EX-9 significantly diminished the latter effect. Central GLP-1R antagonism alone did not affect glucose metabolism. Also, GLP-1 treatment reinforced the inhibitory action of insulin on VLDL-TG production. In conclusion, peripheral administration of GLP-1 reinforces the ability of insulin to suppress endogenous glucose and VLDL-TG production (but not lipolysis) and boosts its capacity to stimulate glucose disposal in high-fat-fed C57Bl/6 mice. Activation of central GLP-1Rs contributes substantially to the inhibition of endogenous glucose production by GLP-1 treatment in this animal model.

CNTO736, a novel glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist, ameliorates insulin resistance and inhibits very low-density lipoprotein production in high-fat-fed mice.

CNTO736 is a glucagon-like peptide (GLP) 1 receptor agonist that incorporates a GLP-1 peptide analog linked to the Mimetibody platform. We evaluate the potential of acute and chronic CNTO736 treatment on insulin sensitivity and very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) metabolism. For acute studies, diet-induced insulin-resistant C57BL/6 mice received a single intraperitoneal injection of CNTO736 or vehicle. Chronic effects were studied after 4 weeks of daily intraperitoneal administration. A hyperinsulinemic-euglycemic clamp monitored insulin sensitivity. A single dose of CNTO736 reduced fasting plasma glucose levels (CNTO736, 4.4 +/- 1.0; control, 6.3 +/- 2.4 mM) and endogenous glucose production (EGP) (CNTO736, 39 +/- 11; control, 53 +/- 13 micromol/min/kg) and increased insulin-mediated glucose uptake (CNTO736, 76 +/- 25; control, 54 +/- 13 micromol/min/kg). Chronic administration of CNTO736 reduced fasting glucose levels (CNTO736, 4.1 +/- 0.8; control 6.0 +/- 1.0 mM), improved insulin-dependent glucose uptake (CNTO736, 84 +/- 19; control, 61 +/- 15 micromol/min/kg), and enhanced inhibition of EGP (CNTO736, 91 +/- 18; control, 80 +/- 10% inhibition). In addition, chronic dosing with CNTO736 reduced fasting EGP (CNTO736, 39 +/- 9; control, 50 +/- 8 micromol/min/kg) and VLDL production (CNTO736, 157 +/- 23; control, 216 +/- 36 micromol/h/kg). These results indicate that CNTO736 reinforces insulin's action on glucose disposal and production in diet-induced insulin-resistant mice. In addition, CNTO736 reduces basal hepatic glucose and VLDL output in these animals. The data suggest that CNTO736 may be a useful tool in the treatment of type 2 diabetes.

Oxyntomodulin ameliorates glucose intolerance in mice fed a high-fat diet.

We evaluated the acute effects of OXM on glucose metabolism in diet-induced insulin-resistant male C57Bl/6 mice. To determine the effects on glucose tolerance, mice were intraperitoneally injected with OXM (0.75, 2.5, or 7.5 nmol) or vehicle prior to an ip glucose tolerance test. OXM (0.75 nmol/h) or vehicle was infused during a hyperinsulinemic euglycemic clamp to quantify insulin action on glucose production and disposal. OXM dose-dependently improved glucose tolerance as estimated by AUC for glucose (OXM: 7.5 nmol, 1,564 +/- 460, P < 0.01; 2.5 nmol, 1,828 +/- 684, P < 0.01; 0.75 nmol, 2,322 +/- 303, P < 0.05; control: 2,790 +/- 222 mmol.l(-1).120 min). Insulin levels in response to glucose administration were higher in 7.5 nmol OXM-treated animals compared with controls. In basal clamp conditions, OXM increased EGP (82.2 +/- 14.7 vs. 39.9 +/- 5.7 micromol.min(-1).kg(-1), P < 0.001). During insulin infusion, insulin levels were twice as high in OXM-treated mice compared with controls (10.6 +/- 2.8 vs. 4.4 +/- 2.2 ng/ml, P < 0.01). Consequently, glucose infusion rate (118.6 +/- 30.8 vs. 38.8 +/- 26.4 microl/h, P < 0.001) and glucose disposal (88.1 +/- 13.0 vs. 45.2 +/- 6.9 micromol.min(-1).kg(-1), P < 0.001) were enhanced in mice that received OXM. In addition, glucose production was more suppressed during OXM infusion (35.7 +/- 15.5 vs. 15.8 +/- 11.4% inhibition, P < 0.05). However, if these data were expressed per unit concentration of circulating insulin, OXM did not affect insulin action on glucose disposal and production. These results indicate that OXM beneficially affects glucose metabolism in diet-induced insulin-resistant C57Bl/6 mice. It ameliorates glucose intolerance, most likely because it elevates glucose-induced plasma insulin concentrations. OXM does not appear to impact on insulin action.

Novel early target genes of parathyroid hormone-related peptide in chondrocytes.

We have performed microarray analysis to identify PTHrP target genes in chondrocytes. ATDC5 cells were cultured as micromasses to induce chondrocyte differentiation. On d 8 of culture, the cells had a prehypertrophic appearance. This time point was chosen for isolation of RNA at 0, 1, 2, and 4 h after a challenge with 10(-7) M PTHrP. Samples were subjected to a cDNA microarray using competition hybridization. A list of 12 genes (P < 10(-3)), the expression regulation of which by PTHrP was confirmed by quantitative PCR analysis, was generated. This included seven up-regulated and five down-regulated genes. Three genes were known to be involved in PTHrP regulation, and six were previously found in growth plate chondrocytes. Most of the genes (10 of 12) were implicated in signal transduction and regulation. PTHrP also induced expression of the up-regulated genes in KS483 osteoblasts, suggesting involvement in a more generalized response to PTHrP. The vast majority of the up-regulated genes (six of seven) contained cAMP response element-binding protein- and/or activating protein-1 transcription factor-binding sites in their promoter regions. Remarkably, a number of PTHrP-regulated genes contained signal transducer and activator of transcription factor (Stat)-binding sites in their promoters. In transient transfection assays, we show that PTHrP is able to positively regulate the activity of Stat3-specific and negatively regulate the activity of Stat5-specific promoter-reporter constructs in ATDC5 and UMR106 cells. In combination with the expression regulation of genes involved in Janus kinase/Stat signaling, this data suggest a previously unrecognized interaction between PTHrP and Janus kinase/Stat signaling.