Improvements in Orthostatic Tolerance with Exercise Are Augmented by Heat Acclimation: A Randomized Controlled Trial.

INTRODUCTION: Heat adaptation is protective against heat illness; however, its role in heat syncope, due to reflex mechanisms, has not been conclusively established. The aim of this study was to evaluate if heat acclimation (HA) was protective against heat syncope and to ascertain underlying physiological mechanisms. METHODS: Twenty (15 males, 5 females) endurance-trained athletes were randomized to either 8 d of mixed active and passive HA (HEAT) or climatically temperate exercise (CONTROL). Before, and after, the interventions participants underwent a head up tilt (HUT) with graded lower body negative pressure (LBNP), in a thermal chamber (32.0 ± 0.3°C), continued until presyncope with measurement of cardiovascular parameters. Heat stress tests (HST) were performed to determine physiological and perceptual measures of HA. RESULTS: There was a significant increase in orthostatic tolerance (OT), as measured by HUT/LBNP, in the HEAT group (preintervention; 28 ± 9 min, postintervention; 40 ± 7 min) compared with CONTROL (preintervention; 30 ± 8 mins, postintervention; 33 ± 5 min) ( P = 0.01). Heat acclimation resulted in a significantly reduced peak and mean rectal and skin temperature ( P < 0.01), peak heat rate ( P < 0.003), thermal comfort ( P < 0.04), and rating of perceived exertion ( P < 0.02) during HST. There was a significantly increased plasma volume (PV) in the HEAT group in comparison to CONTROL ( P = 0.03). CONCLUSIONS: Heat acclimation causes improvements in OT and is likely to be beneficial in patients with heat exacerbated reflex syncope. Heat acclimation-mediated PV expansion is a potential physiological mechanism underlying improved OT.

Evaluation of stroke volume estimation during orthostatic stress: the utility of Modelflow.

Advanced blood pressure monitoring devices contain algorithms that permit estimation of stroke volume (SV). Modelflow (Finapres Medical Systems) is one common method to non-invasively estimate beat-to-beat SV. However, Modelflow accuracy during profound reductions in SV is unclear. We aimed to compare SV estimation by Modelflow and echocardiography, at rest and during orthostatic challenge. We tested 13 individuals (age 24 ±â€…2 years; 7 female) using combined head-up tilt and graded lower body negative pressure, continued until presyncope. SV was derived by both Modelflow and echocardiography on multiple occasions while supine, during orthostatic stress, and at presyncope. SV index (SVI) was determined by normalising SV for body surface area. Bias and limits of agreement were determined using Bland-Altman analyses. Two one-sided tests (TOST) examined equivalency. Across all timepoints, Modelflow estimates of SV (73.2 ±â€…1.6 ml) were strongly correlated with echocardiography estimates (66.1 ±â€…1.3 ml) (r = 0.56, P  < 0.001) with a bias of +7.1 ±â€…21.1 ml. Bias across all timepoints was further improved when SV was indexed (+3.6 ±â€…12.0 ml.m -2 ). Likewise, when assessing responses relative to baseline, Modelflow estimates of SV (-23.4 ±â€…1.4%) were strongly correlated with echocardiography estimates (-19.2 ±â€…1.3%) (r = 0.76, P  < 0.001), with minimal bias (-4.2 ±â€…13.1%). TOST testing revealed equivalency to within 15% of the clinical standard for SV and SVI, both expressed as absolute values and relative to baseline. Modelflow can be used to track changes in SV during profound orthostatic stress, with accuracy enhanced with correction relative to baseline values or body size. These data support the use of Modelflow estimates of SV for autonomic function testing.

Pain associated with intravascular instrumentation reduces orthostatic tolerance and predisposes to vasovagal reactions in healthy young adults without needle phobia: a randomised controlled study.

PURPOSE: Vasovagal syncope (VVS), or fainting, is frequently triggered by pain, fear, or emotional distress, especially with blood-injection-injury stimuli. We aimed to examine the impact of intravenous (IV) instrumentation on orthostatic tolerance (OT; fainting susceptibility) in healthy young adults. We hypothesized that pain associated with IV procedures would reduce OT. METHODS: In this randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, cross-over study, participants (N = 23; 14 women; age 24.2 ± 4.4 years) underwent head-up tilt with combined lower body negative pressure to presyncope on three separate days: (1) IV cannulation with local anaesthetic cream (EMLA) (IV + EMLA); (2) IV cannulation with placebo cream (IV + Placebo); (3) sham IV cannulation with local anaesthetic cream (Sham + EMLA). Participants rated pain associated with IV procedures on a 1-5 scale. Cardiovascular (finger plethysmography and electrocardiogram; Finometer Pro), and forearm vascular resistance (FVR; brachial Doppler) responses were recorded continuously and non-invasively. RESULTS: Compared to Sham + EMLA (27.8 ± 2.4 min), OT was reduced in IV + Placebo (23.0 ± 2.8 min; p = 0.026), but not in IV + EMLA (26.2 ± 2.2 min; p = 0.185). Pain was increased in IV + Placebo (2.8 ± 0.2) compared to IV + EMLA (2.0 ± 2.2; p = 0.002) and Sham + EMLA (1.1 ± 0.1; p < 0.001). Orthostatic heart rate responses were lower in IV + Placebo (84.4 ± 3.1 bpm) than IV + EMLA (87.3 ± 3.1 bpm; p = 0.007) and Sham + EMLA (87.7 ± 3.1 bpm; p = 0.001). Maximal FVR responses were reduced in IV + Placebo (+ 140.7 ± 19.0%) compared to IV + EMLA (+ 221.2 ± 25.9%; p < 0.001) and Sham + EMLA (+ 190.6 ± 17.0%; p = 0.017). CONCLUSIONS: Pain plays a key role in predisposing to VVS following venipuncture, and our data suggest this effect is mediated through reduced capacity to achieve maximal sympathetic activation during orthostatic stress. Topical anaesthetics, such as EMLA, may reduce the frequency and severity of VVS during procedures requiring needles and intravascular instrumentation.

Exaggerated postural sway improves orthostatic cardiovascular and cerebrovascular control.

Introduction: Healthy individuals with poor cardiovascular control, but who do not experience syncope (fainting), adopt an innate strategy of increased leg movement in the form of postural sway that is thought to counter orthostatic (gravitational) stress on the cardiovascular system. However, the direct effect of sway on cardiovascular hemodynamics and cerebral perfusion is unknown. If sway produces meaningful cardiovascular responses, it could be exploited clinically to prevent an imminent faint. Methods: Twenty healthy adults were instrumented with cardiovascular (finger plethysmography, echocardiography, electrocardiogram) and cerebrovascular (transcranial Doppler) monitoring. Following supine rest, participants performed a baseline stand (BL) on a force platform, followed by three trials of exaggerated sway (anterior-posterior, AP; mediolateral, ML; square, SQ) in a randomized order. Results: All exaggerated postural sway conditions improved systolic arterial pressure (SAP, p = 0.001) responses, while blunting orthostatic reductions in stroke volume (SV, p < 0.01) and cerebral blood flow (CBFv, p < 0.05) compared to BL. Markers of sympathetic activation (power of low-frequency oscillations in SAP, p < 0.001) and maximum transvalvular flow velocity (p < 0.001) were reduced during exaggerated sway conditions. Responses were dose-dependent, with improvements in SAP (p < 0.001), SV (p < 0.001) and CBFv (p = 0.009) all positively correlated with total sway path length. Coherence between postural movements and SAP (p < 0.001), SV (p < 0.001) and CBFv (p = 0.003) also improved during exaggerated sway. Discussion: Exaggerated sway improves cardiovascular and cerebrovascular control and may supplement cardiovascular reflex responses to orthostatic stress. This movement provides a simple means to boost orthostatic cardiovascular control for individuals with syncope, or those with occupations that require prolonged motionless standing.

Risk factors for reflex syncope in the British Army.

INTRODUCTION: Reflex syncope in the UK Armed Forces is reportedly higher than comparable militaries and civilian populations and is significantly more common in soldiers who take part in State Ceremonial and Public Duties (SCPD) compared with other British Army service personnel (SP). This study aimed to investigate individual susceptibility factors for syncope in soldiers who regularly take part in SCPD. METHODS: A retrospective cohort study was performed in 200 soldiers who perform SCPD. A questionnaire was undertaken reviewing soldiers' medical history and circumstances of any fainting episodes. A consented review of participants' electronic primary healthcare medical record was also performed. Participants were divided into two groups (syncope, n=80; control, n=120) based on whether they had previously fainted. RESULTS: In the syncope group orthostasis (61%) and heat (35%) were the most common precipitating factors. The most common interventions used by soldiers were to maintain hydration (59%) and purposeful movements (predominantly 'toe wiggling'; 55%). 30% of participants who had previously fainted did not seek definitive medical attention. A history of migraines/headaches was found to increase the risk of reflex syncope (OR 8.880, 1.214-218.8), while a history of antihistamine prescription (OR 0.07144, 0.003671-0.4236), non-white ethnicity (OR 0.03401, 0.0007419-0.3972) and male sex (OR 0.2640, 0.08891-0.6915) were protective. CONCLUSION: This is the first study, in the British Army, to describe, categorise and establish potential risk factors for reflex syncope. Orthostatic-mediated reflex syncope is the most common cause in soldiers who regularly perform SCPD and this is further exacerbated by heat exposure. Soldiers do not use evidence-based methods to avoid reflex syncope. These data could be used to target interventions for SP who have previously fainted or to prevent fainting during SCPD.

The effect of water temperature on orthostatic tolerance: a randomised crossover trial.

PURPOSE: Bolus water drinking, at room temperature, has been shown to improve orthostatic tolerance (OT), probably via sympathetic activation; however, it is not clear whether the temperature of the water bolus modifies the effect on OT or the cardiovascular responses to orthostatic stress. The aim of this study was to assess whether differing water temperature of the water bolus would alter time to presyncope and/or cardiovascular parameters during incremental orthostatic stress. METHODS: Fourteen participants underwent three head-up tilt (HUT) tests with graded lower body negative pressure (LBNP) continued until presyncope. Fifteen minutes prior to each HUT, participants drank a 500 mL bolus of water which was randomised, in single-blind crossover fashion, to either room temperature water (20 °C) (ROOM), ice-cold water (0-3 °C) (COLD) or warm water (45 °C) (WARM). Cardiovascular parameters were monitored continuously. RESULTS: There was no significant difference in OT in the COLD (33 ± 3 min; p = 0.3321) and WARM (32 ± 3 min; p = 0.6764) conditions in comparison to the ROOM condition (31 ± 3 min). During the HUT tests, heart rate and cardiac output were significantly reduced (p < 0.0073), with significantly increased systolic blood pressure, stroke volume, cerebral blood flow velocity and total peripheral resistance (p < 0.0054), in the COLD compared to ROOM conditions. CONCLUSIONS: In healthy controls, bolus cold water drinking results in favourable orthostatic cardiovascular responses during HUT/LBNP without significantly altering OT. Using a cold water bolus may result in additional benefits in patients with orthostatic intolerance above those conferred by bolus water at room temperature (by ameliorating orthostatic tachycardia and enhancing vascular resistance responses). Further research in patients with orthostatic intolerance is warranted.

Relative changes in brain and kidney biomarkers with Exertional Heat Illness during a cool weather marathon.

BACKGROUND: Medical personnel may find it challenging to distinguish severe Exertional Heat Illness (EHI), with attendant risks of organ-injury and longer-term sequalae, from lesser forms of incapacity associated with strenuous physical exertion. Early evidence for injury at point-of-incapacity could aid the development and application of targeted interventions to improve outcomes. We aimed to investigate whether biomarker surrogates for end-organ damage sampled at point-of-care (POC) could discriminate EHI versus successful marathon performance. METHODS: Eight runners diagnosed as EHI cases upon reception to medical treatment facilities and 30 successful finishers of the same cool weather marathon (ambient temperature 8 rising to 12 ºC) were recruited. Emerging clinical markers associated with injury affecting the brain (neuron specific enolase, NSE; S100 calcium-binding protein B, S100ß) and renal system (cystatin C, cysC; kidney-injury molecule-1, KIM-1; neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin, NGAL), plus copeptin as a surrogate for fluid-regulatory stress, were sampled in blood upon marathon collapse/completion, as well as beforehand at rest (successful finishers only). RESULTS: Versus successful finishers, EHI showed significantly higher NSE (10.33 [6.37, 20.00] vs. 3.17 [2.71, 3.92] ug.L-1, P<0.0001), cysC (1.48 [1.10, 1.67] vs. 1.10 [0.95, 1.21] mg.L-1, P = 0.0092) and copeptin (339.4 [77.0, 943] vs. 18.7 [7.1, 67.9] pmol.L-1, P = 0.0050). Discrimination of EHI by ROC (Area-Under-the-Curve) showed performance that was outstanding for NSE (0.97, P<0.0001) and excellent for copeptin (AUC = 0.83, P = 0.0066). CONCLUSIONS: As novel biomarker candidates for EHI outcomes in cool-weather endurance exercise, early elevations in NSE and copeptin provided sufficient discrimination to suggest utility at point-of-incapacity. Further investigation is warranted in patients exposed to greater thermal insult, followed up over a more extended period.

Cardiovascular risk in high-hazard occupations: the role of occupational cardiology.

Work is beneficial for health, but many individuals develop cardiovascular disease (CVD) during their working lives. Occupational cardiology is an emerging field that combines traditional cardiology sub-specialisms with prevention and risk management unique to specific employment characteristics and conditions. In some occupational settings incapacitation through CVD has the potential to be catastrophic due to the nature of work and/or the working environment. These are often termed 'hazardous' or 'high-hazard' occupations. Consequently, many organizations that employ individuals in high-hazard roles undertake pre-employment medicals and periodic medical examinations to screen for CVD. The identification of CVD that exceeds predefined employer (or regulatory body) risk thresholds can result in occupational restriction, or disqualification, which may be temporary or permanent. This article will review the evidence related to occupational cardiology for several high-hazard occupations related to aviation and space, diving, high altitude, emergency workers, commercial transportation, and the military. The article will focus on environmental risk, screening, surveillance, and risk management for the prevention of events precipitated by CVD. Occupational cardiology is a challenging field that requires a broad understanding of general cardiology, environmental, and occupational medicine principles. There is a current lack of consensus and contemporary evidence which requires further research. Provision of evidence-based, but individualized, risk stratification and treatment plans is required from specialists that understand the complex interaction between work and the cardiovascular system. There is a current lack of consensus and contemporary evidence in occupational cardiology and further research is required.

Does vitamin D supplementation prevent SARS-CoV-2 infection in military personnel? Review of the evidence.

For most individuals residing in Northwestern Europe, maintaining replete vitamin D status throughout the year is unlikely without vitamin D supplementation and deficiency remains common. Military studies have investigated the association with vitamin D status, and subsequent supplementation, with the risk of stress fractures particularly during recruit training. The expression of nuclear vitamin D receptors and vitamin D metabolic enzymes in immune cells additionally provides a rationale for the potential role of vitamin D in maintaining immune homeostasis. One particular area of interest has been in the prevention of acute respiratory tract infections (ARTIs). The aims of this review were to consider the evidence of vitamin D supplementation in military populations in the prevention of ARTIs, including SARS-CoV-2 infection and consequent COVID-19 illness. The occupational/organisational importance of reducing transmission of SARS-CoV-2, especially where infected young adults may be asymptomatic, presymptomatic or paucisymptomatic, is also discussed.

Changes in gastrointestinal cell integrity after marathon running and exercise-associated collapse.

PURPOSE: Endurance exercise and hyperthermia are associated with compromised intestinal permeability and endotoxaemia. The presence of intestinal fatty acid-binding protein (I-FABP) in the systemic circulation suggests intestinal wall damage, but this marker has not previously been used to investigate intestinal integrity after marathon running. METHODS: Twenty-four runners were recruited as controls prior to completing a standard marathon and had sequential I-FABP measurements before and on completion of the marathon, then at four and 24 h later. Eight runners incapacitated with exercise-associated collapse (EAC) with hyperthermia had I-FABP measured at the time of collapse and 1 hour later. RESULTS: I-FABP was increased immediately on completing the marathon (T0; 2593 ± 1373 ng·l-1) compared with baseline (1129 ± 493 ng·l-1; p < 0.01) in the controls, but there was no significant difference between baseline and the levels at four hours (1419 ± 1124 ng·l-1; p = 0.7), or at 24 h (1086 ± 302 ng·l-1; p = 0.5). At T0, EAC cases had a significantly higher I-FABP concentration (15,389 ± 8547 ng.l-1) compared with controls at T0 (p < 0.01), and remained higher at 1 hour after collapse (13,951 ± 10,476 ng.l-1) than the pre-race control baseline (p < 0.05). CONCLUSION: I-FABP is a recently described biomarker whose presence in the circulation is associated with intestinal wall damage. I-FABP levels increase after marathon running and increase further if the endurance exercise is associated with EAC and hyperthermia. After EAC, I-FABP remains high in the circulation for an extended period, suggesting ongoing intestinal wall stress.

Echocardiographic changes following active heat acclimation.

Heat adaption through acclimatisation or acclimation improves cardiovascular stability by maintaining cardiac output due to compensatory increases in stroke volume. The main aim of this study was to assess whether 2D transthoracic echocardiography (TTE) could be used to confirm differences in resting echocardiographic parameters, before and after active heat acclimation (HA). Thirteen male endurance trained cyclists underwent a resting blinded TTE before and after randomisation to either 5 consecutive daily exertional heat exposures of controlled hyperthermia at 32°C with 70% relative humidity (RH) (HOT) or 5-days of exercise in temperate (21°C with 36% RH) environmental conditions (TEMP). Measures of HA included heart rate, gastrointestinal temperature, skin temperature, sweat loss, total non-urinary fluid loss (TNUFL), plasma volume and participant's ratings of perceived exertion (RPE). Following HA, the HOT group demonstrated increased sweat loss (p = 0.01) and TNUFL (p = 0.01) in comparison to the TEMP group with a significantly decreased RPE (p = 0.01). On TTE, post exposure, there was a significant comparative increase in the HOT group in left ventricular end diastolic volume (p = 0.029), SV (p = 0.009), left atrial volume (p = 0.005), inferior vena cava diameter (p = 0.041), and a significant difference in mean peak diastolic mitral annular velocity (e') (p = 0.044). Cardiovascular adaptations to HA appear to be predominantly mediated by improvements in increased preload and ventricular compliance. TTE is a useful tool to demonstrate and quantify cardiac HA.

FFR-CT strengthens multi-disciplinary reporting of CT coronary angiography.

The utility of computed tomography (CT) coronary angiography (CTCA) is underpinned by its excellent sensitivity and negative-predictive value for coronary artery disease (CAD), although it lacks specificity. Invasive coronary angiography (ICA) and invasive fractional flow reserve (FFR), are gold-standard investigations for coronary artery disease, however, they are resource intensive and associated with a small risk of serious complications. FFR-CT has been shown to have comparable performance to FFR measurements and has the potential to reduce unnecessary ICAs. The aim of this study is to briefly review FFR-CT, as an investigational modality for stable angina, and to share 'real-world' UK data, in consecutive patients, following the initial adoption of FFR-CT in our district general hospital in 2016. A retrospective analysis was performed of a previously published consecutive series of 157 patients referred for CTCA by our group in a single, non-interventional, district general hospital. Our multi-disciplinary team (MDT) recorded the likely definitive outcome following CTCA, namely intervention or optimised medical management. FFR-CT analysis was performed on 24 consecutive patients where the MDT recommendation was for ICA. The CTCA + MDT findings, FFR-CT and ICA ± FFR were correlated along with the definitive outcome. In comparing CTCA + MDT, FFR-CT and definitive outcome, in terms of whether a percutaneous coronary intervention was performed, FFR-CT was significantly correlated with definitive outcome (r=0.471, p=0.036) as opposed to CTCA + MDT (r=0.378, p=0.07). In five cases (21%, 5/24), FFR-CT could have altered the management plan by reclassification of coronary stenosis. FFR-CT of 60 coronary artery vessels (83%, 60/72) (mean FFR-CT ratio 0.82 ± 0.10) compared well with FFR performed on 18 coronary vessels (mean 0.80 ± 0.11) (r=0.758, p=0.0013). In conclusion, FFR-CT potentially adds value to MDT outcome of CTCA, increasing the specificity and predictive accuracy of CTCA. FFR-CT may be best utilised to investigate CTCAs where there is potentially prognostically significant moderate disease or severe disease to maximise cost-effectiveness. These data could be used by other NHS trusts to best incorporate FFR-CT into their diagnostic pathways for the investigation of stable chest pain.

Cardiac MRI improves cardiovascular risk stratification in hazardous occupations.

BACKGROUND: The benefit of cardiovascular magnetic resonance Imaging (CMR) in assessing occupational risk is unknown. Pilots undergo frequent medical assessment for occult disease, which threatens incapacitation or distraction during flight. ECG and examination anomalies often lead to lengthy restriction, pending full investigation. CMR provides a sensitive, specific assessment of cardiac anatomy, tissue characterisation, perfusion defects and myocardial viability. We sought to determine if CMR, when added to standard care, would alter occupational outcome. METHODS: A retrospective review was conducted of all personnel attending the RAF Aviation Medicine Consultation Service (AMCS) for assessment of a cardiac anomaly, over a 2-year period. Those undergoing standard of care (history, examination, exercise ECG, 24 h-Holter and transthoracic echocardiography), and those undergoing a CMR in addition, were identified. The influence of CMR upon the final decision regarding flying restriction was determined by comparing the diagnosis reached with standard of care plus CMR vs. standard of care alone. RESULTS: Of the ~ 8000 UK military aircrew, 558 personnel were seen for cardiovascular assessment. Fifty-two underwent CMR. A normal TTE did not reliably exclude abnormalities subsequently detected by CMR. Addition of CMR resulted in an upgraded occupational status in 62% of those investigated, with 37% returning to unrestricted duties. Only 8% of referrals were undiagnosed following CMR. All these were cases of borderline chamber dilatation and reduction in systolic function in whom diagnostic uncertainty remained between physiological exercise adaptation and early cardiomyopathy. CONCLUSIONS: CMR increases the likelihood of a definitive diagnosis and of return to flying. This study supports early use of CMR in occupational assessment for high-hazard occupations.

Heat Adaptation in Military Personnel: Mitigating Risk, Maximizing Performance.

The study of heat adaptation in military personnel offers generalizable insights into a variety of sporting, recreational and occupational populations. Conversely, certain characteristics of military employment have few parallels in civilian life, such as the imperative to achieve mission objectives during deployed operations, the opportunity to undergo training and selection for elite units or the requirement to fulfill essential duties under prolonged thermal stress. In such settings, achieving peak individual performance can be critical to organizational success. Short-notice deployment to a hot operational or training environment, exposure to high intensity exercise and undertaking ceremonial duties during extreme weather may challenge the ability to protect personnel from excessive thermal strain, especially where heat adaptation is incomplete. Graded and progressive acclimatization can reduce morbidity substantially and impact on mortality rates, yet individual variation in adaptation has the potential to undermine empirical approaches. Incapacity under heat stress can present the military with medical, occupational and logistic challenges requiring dynamic risk stratification during initial and subsequent heat stress. Using data from large studies of military personnel observing traditional and more contemporary acclimatization practices, this review article (1) characterizes the physical challenges that military training and deployed operations present (2) considers how heat adaptation has been used to augment military performance under thermal stress and (3) identifies potential solutions to optimize the risk-performance paradigm, including those with broader relevance to other populations exposed to heat stress.

Military application of mechanical CPR devices: a pressing requirement?

Maintaining high-quality chest compressions during cardiopulmonary resuscitation following cardiac arrest presents a challenge. The currently available mechanical CPR (mCPR) devices are described in this review, coupled with an analysis of the evidence pertaining to their efficacy. Overall, mCPR appears to be at least equivalent to high-quality manual CPR in large trials. There is potential utility for mCPR devices in the military context to ensure uninterrupted quality CPR following a medical cardiac arrest. Particular utility may be in a prohibitive operational environment, where manpower is limited or where timelines to definitive care are stretched resulting in a requirement for prolonged resuscitation. mCPR can also act as a bridge to advanced endovascular resuscitation techniques should they become more mainstream therapy.

Exercise ASKARI SERPENT: enabling clinical data collection during exercises and operations to support future contingency planning and assurance of category-based reporting systems.

INTRODUCTION: Exercise ASKARI SERPENT (Ex AS) is a British Army exercise that provides primary healthcare (PHC) to Kenyan civilians in support of local health authorities. It is conducted in partnership with the Kenya Defence Force Medical Services (KDFMS). Accurate epidemiological data is critical in planning the exercise and for any future short-notice contingency operations in similar environments. This paper reports epidemiological data for Ex AS using a novel data collection system. METHODS: PHC on Ex AS was delivered by trained and validated combat medical technicians (CMTs) using a set of Read-coded protocols. The CMTs were also directly supported and supervised by medical officers and nurses. RESULTS: A total of 3093 consultations were conducted over a 16-day period. Of these, 2707 (87.5%) consultations fell within the remit of the CMT protocols, with only 386 consultations (12.5%) being conducted exclusively by the medical officers or nurses. DISCUSSION: A Read-coded matrix built on CMT protocols is a simple and useful tool, particularly in civilian populations, for collecting morbidity data with the vast majority of conditions accounted for in the protocols. It is anticipated that such a system can better inform training, manning, medical material and pharmaceutical procurement than current category-based morbidity surveillance systems such as EPINATO (NATO epidemiological data). There is clear advantage to directly linking data capture to treatment algorithms. Accuracy, both in terms of numbers and condition, is likely improved. Data is also captured contemporaneously rather than after indeterminate time. Read coding has the added benefit of being an established electronic standard. In addition, the system would support traditional reporting methods such as EPINATO by providing increased assurance.

Managing the military patient with syncope.

Syncope is a relatively common occurrence in military populations. It is defined as a transient loss of consciousness due to global cerebral hypoperfusion, characterised by a rapid onset, short duration and a spontaneous and complete recovery. While the symptom of syncope is easily elicited, discovering the mechanism can be more problematic and may require a plethora of diagnostic tests. The aim of this paper is to review current evidence pertaining to the classification, investigation and management of syncope, from a military perspective. Emphasis is placed on assisting primary healthcare professionals in the assessment and management of syncope, in the UK and on operations, while providing explicit guidance on risk. The occupational limitations required in safely managing patients with syncope are stressed along with the potential long-term limitations.

The health of the Role 1 doctor.

Many pitfalls are evident in the event that a doctor becomes a patient requiring investigation or treatment. The military environment theoretically creates an added dimension to difficulties such as self-treatment, insight and objectivity, vulnerability, mental health and medication abuse, confidentiality and the kerb-side consultation. These are explored with the military and civilian perspectives contrasted. Further qualitative research is required to formally assess what barriers military doctors face in accessing military healthcare. This, along with national guidelines should be incorporated into formal policy.

Deployed communication between the Role 3 and Role 1.

INTRODUCTION: The discharge summary is the most common method for documenting a patient's diagnostic findings, hospital management and arrangements for post-discharge follow up. After being discharged from hospital, patients are routinely reviewed without a discharge summary being available. A recent review revealed that a significant proportion of patients discharged from the Role 3 had no evidence of their admission on their permanent medical record. The aim of this audit was to assess the transition of discharge summaries from Role 3 to Role 1 during Op HERRICK 18. The intention was to review where errors in the transfer of discharge information between Role 3 and Role 1 might be occurring with a view to implementing improvements. METHODS: Two audits assessed the delivery of discharge information. A re-audit was performed 1 month after a system was implemented. RESULTS: The transfer of discharge information was poor with only 1/40 (2.5%) summaries arriving from R3 to R1. Following implementation of a system the transfer of discharge information improved to 24/30 (80%). CONCLUSIONS: The adoption of a system to transit discharge information from R3 to R1 resulted in a drastic improvement. Ideally, a future electronic patient record system used by all facets of Defence Medical Services would limit the potential for future adverse events due to communication failure. Regular audits assessing the transfer of discharge information should form part of standard audit cycles in future contingency operations.